Fatigue Countermeasures in Aviation
Abstract
Pilot fatigue is a significant problem in modern aviation operations, largely because of the unpredictable work hours, long duty periods, circadian disruptions, and insufficient sleep that are commonplace in both civilian and military flight operations. The full impact of fatigue is often underappreciated, but many of its deleterious effects have long been known. Compared to people who are well-rested, people who are sleep deprived think and move more slowly, make more mistakes, and have memory difficulties. These negative effects may and do lead to aviation errors and accidents. In the 1930s, flight time limitations, suggested layover durations, and aircrew sleep recommendations were developed in an attempt to mitigate aircrew fatigue. Unfortunately, there have been few changes to aircrew scheduling provisions and flight time limitations since the time they were first introduced, despite evidence that updates are needed. Although the scientific understanding of fatigue, sleep, shift work, and circadian physiology has advanced significantly over the past several decades, current regulations and industry practices have in large part failed to adequately incorporate the new knowledge. Thus, the problem of pilot fatigue has steadily increased along with fatigue-related concerns over air safety. Accident statistics, reports from pilots themselves, and operational flight studies all show that fatigue is a growing concern within aviation operations. This position paper reviews the…
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ATCO alertness level is closely linked with task load and circadian rhythm.
“ATCO alertness level has been proven to be closely linked with task load and circadian rhythm (Caldwell, et al., 2009).”
From The Analysis of Occurrences Associated with Air Traffic Volume and Air Traffic Controllers’ Alertness for Fatigue Risk Management (2021) · cites this paper as Caldwell, et al., 2009
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BackgroundPilot workload measurement model based on task complexity analysis
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Assessment of Vigilance Level during Work: Fitting a Hidden Markov Model to Heart Rate Variability
Wang, H.-Y., Chen, D.-K., Huang, Y.-X., Zhang, Y., Qiao, Y., Xiao, J., Xie, N., & Fan, H. (2023) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci13040638 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Lillis, T. A., Hamilton, N. A., Pressman, S. D., & Khou, C. S. (2016) · Behavioral Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1080/15402002.2016.1239580 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Unfortunately, there has been little research on the use of common sleep-related coping strategies (Caldwell et al., 2009), like bright-light exposure, napping, exercise, caffeine use, and alcohol consumption in postpartum populations.”
BackgroundIntegrated fatigue modeling in crew rostering and operations
Rangan, S., Bowman, J. L., Hauser, W. J., McDonald, W. W., Lewis, R. A., & Dongen, H. P. A. V. (2013) · Canadian Aeronautics and Space Journal · doi:10.5589/q13-001 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Oliver, L. S., Sullivan, J. P., Russell, S., Peake, J. M., Nicholson, M., McNulty, C. R., & Kelly, V. G. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19010307 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Nutritional interventions have been investigated to determine their influence on individual responses to cognitive demand in sport and exercise science [35], military [36], and aerospace [37] studies.”
BackgroundCaldwell, J. L., Schroeder, V. M., Kunkle, C. L., & Stephenson, H. (2020) · Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172968 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationNeuromodulation research and application in the U.S. Department of Defense.
Nelson, J., & Tepe, V. (2015) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2014.10.014 · Cited by 15
Mannawaduge, C. D., Pignata, S., Banks, S., & Dorrian, J. (2024) · Transport Policy · doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2024.02.002 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Causa, L., Tapia, J. E., Valenzuela, A., Benalcazar, D., Droguett, E. L., & Busch, C. (2023) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2023.122808 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Acute and cumulative effects of scheduling on aircrew fatigue in ultra‐short‐haul operations
Åkerstedt, T., Klemets, T., Karlsson, D., Häbel, H., Widman, L., & Sallinen, M. (2021) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.13305 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“There is no consensus definition of fatigue, but in aviation research it has a connotation of sleepiness (Caldwell et al., 2009; Weiland et al., 2013), which refers to a drive towards sleep (Dement & Carskadon, 1982).”
BackgroundFatigue and measurement of fatigue: a scoping review protocol
Walters, S. J., Stern, C., & Stephenson, M. (2018) · The JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports · doi:10.11124/jbisrir-2017-003699 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Fatigue In Collegiate Aviation
Levin, E., Mendonca, F., Keller, J., & Teo, A. (2019) · International Journal of Aviation, Aeronautics, and Aerospace · doi:10.15394/ijaaa.2019.1351 · Cited by 14
“Published by Scholarly Commons, 2019 An adequate daily quantity and quality of sleep and rest opportunities are inevitable to physical and physiological restoration when suffering from fatigue (Caldwell et al., 2009, 2016; Dawson et al., 2012; FAA, n.d.; ICAO, 2012a; JeanLouis et. al., 1998).”
BackgroundRodrigues, T. E., Fischer, F. M., Helene, O., Antunes, E., Furlan, E., Morteo, E., Menquini, A., Lisboa, J., Frank, A., Simões, A., et al. (2022) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2022.105905 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Research gaps and needs for preventing worker fatigue in the transportation and utilities industries
Sieber, W., Chen, G. X., Krueger, G., Lincoln, J., Menéndez, C. C., & O'Connor, M. (2022) · American Journal of Industrial Medicine · doi:10.1002/ajim.23346 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Real-Time Gaze-Aware Cognitive Support System for Security Surveillance
Marois, A., Lafond, D., Williot, A., Vachon, F., & Tremblay, S. (2020) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1071181320641274 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…intelligent systems could thus be used for similar purposes in other work domains for which visual search is critical, such as aircraft piloting (Caldwell et al., 2009), air traffic control (Imbert et al., 2014), or radar surveillance (Peysakhovich, Vachon, Vallières, Dehais, & Tremblay, 2015).”
MethodMitigating fatigue on the flight deck: how is controlled rest used in practice?
Hilditch, C., Arsintescu, L., Gregory, K., & Flynn-Evans, E. (2020) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2020.1803898 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“For example, the strategic use of caffeine to promote alertness, or increased use of crew resource management to ensure safe operations (Caldwell et al. 2009).”
BackgroundDorokhov, V., Taranov, A., Narbut, A. M., Sakharov, D., Gruzdeva, S., Tkachenko, O., Arsen’ev, G. N., Blochin, I. S., & Putilov, A. A. (2019) · Sleep Medicine Research · doi:10.17241/smr.2019.00486 · Cited by 12
Mendonca, F., Keller, J., & Lu, C.-T. (2019) · International Journal of Aviation, Aeronautics, and Aerospace · doi:10.15394/ijaaa.2019.1365 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Published by Scholarly Commons, 2019 Introduction Pilot fatigue is a significant hazard to aviation operations that is commonplace in both civilian and military flight operations (Caldwell et al., 2009; Marcus & Rosekind, 2017).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDamato, E. G., Fillioe, S. J., Margevicius, S. P., Mayes, R. S., Somogyi, J. E., Vannix, I. S., Abdollahifar, A., Turner, A. M., Ilcus, L. S., & Decker, M. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2022.876750 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Sleep loss is considered the primary cause of fatigue in aviators (Caldwell et al., 2009; Gore et al., 2010; Caldwell et al., 2019; Morris et al., 2020; Wilson et al., 2020; Wingelaar-Jagt et al., 2021).”
BackgroundMcFarlane, S. J., García, J. E., Verhagen, D., & Dyer, A. G. (2020) · Clocks & Sleep · doi:10.3390/clockssleep2040031 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Would you allow a sleepy surgeon operate on you? A narrative review.
Whelehan, D. F., Alexander, M., & Ridgway, P. (2020) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2020.101341 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Modeling pilot mental workload using information theory
Zhang, X., Qu, X.-D., Xue, H., Zhao, H., Li, T., & Tao, D. (2019) · Aeronautical Journal · doi:10.1017/aer.2019.13 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Pilot Support System: A Machine Learning Approach
Watkins, D., Gallardo, G., & Chau, S. (2018) · International Computer Science Conference · doi:10.1109/icsc.2018.00067 · Cited by 11
“To better address and manage these risks, a Pilot Support System based on machine learning coupled with big data analytics may be used [1,2].”
BackgroundFailure Rates for Aging Aircraft
MacLean, L., Richman, A., & Hudak, M. (2018) · doi:10.3390/safety4010007 · Cited by 11
“In addition to unscheduled maintenance, the whole system is subject to time based or block repair, where items are inspected and replaced/refurbished [14,15].”
Background
- Authors
- Caldwell, J. A., Mallis, M. M., Caldwell, J. L., Paul, M. A., Miller, J. C., & Neri, D. F.
- Affiliations
- Archinoetics (United States) (US)
- Venue
- Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine
- Publisher
- Aerospace Medical Association
- Published
- 2009-01-01
- Volume
- 80
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 29-59
- ISSN
- 0001-9402 (ISSN-L)
- 0095-6562
- OpenAlex
- W1987324686
- Cited by
- 295
- References
- 166
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 12 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 13.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Aviation Space and Environmental Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and Work-Related Fatigue
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Human-Automation Interaction and Safety
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Circadian rhythm and melatonin
- Keywords
- pilot fatigue, fatigue countermeasures, aviation safety, flight time limitations, circadian rhythm disruption, shift work, sleep deprivation, aviation law, aviation accidents, military aviation, civil aviation
- MeSH terms
- Accidents, Aviation, Aerospace Medicine, Central Nervous System Stimulants, Circadian Rhythm, Fatigue, Humans, Hypnotics and Sedatives, Rest, Sleep Deprivation, Task Performance and Analysis, United States, Wakefulness, Work Schedule Tolerance, Occupational Health, Workload, Guidelines as Topic
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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