CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 198CRISPR and Genetic EngineeringExtracellular vesicles in diseaseCancer Genomics and Diagnostics

Horizontal Gene Transfer: From Evolutionary Flexibility to Disease Progression

Open access
Emamalipour, Melissa, Seidi, Khaled, Zununi Vahed, Sepideh, Jahanban-Esfahlan, Ali, Jaymand, Mehdi, Majdi, Hasan, Amoozgar, Zohreh, Chitkushev, L. T. +3 more·2020·Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology
DOI 10.3389/fcell.2020.00229PMC PMC7248198
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Flexibility in the exchange of genetic material takes place between different organisms of the same or different species. This phenomenon is known to play a key role in the genetic, physiological, and ecological performance of the host. Exchange of genetic materials can cause both beneficial and/or adverse biological consequences. Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) or lateral gene transfer (LGT) as a general mechanism leads to biodiversity and biological innovations in nature. HGT mediators are one of the genetic engineering tools used for selective introduction of desired changes in the genome for gene/cell therapy purposes. HGT, however, is crucial in development, emergence, and recurrence of various human-related diseases, such as cancer, genetic-, metabolic-, and neurodegenerative disorders and can negatively affect the therapeutic outcome by promoting resistant forms or disrupting the performance of genome editing toolkits. Because of the importance of HGT and its vital physio- and pathological roles, here the variety of HGT mechanisms are reviewed, ranging from extracellular vesicles (EVs) and nanotubes in prokaryotes to cell-free DNA and apoptotic bodies in eukaryotes. Next, we argue that HGT plays a role both in the development of useful features and in pathological states associated with emerging and recurrent forms of the disease. A better understanding of the different HGT mediators and their genome-altering effects/potentials may pave the way for the development of more effective therapeutic and diagnostic regimes.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fcell.2020.00229

Cites

9 of 9 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Traditional risk assessments focus on immediate ecological effects, but long-term monitoring of genome stability and horizontal gene transfer remains insufficient.

    “Traditional risk assessments focus on immediate ecological effects, but long-term monitoring of genome stability and horizontal gene transfer remains insufficient [108].”

    From Harnessing bacterial consortia for effective bioremediation: targeted removal of heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and persistent pollutants (2025) · cites this paper as [108]

    The Conclusion and Future Prospective section distinguishes immediate from delayed consequences of horizontal gene transfer, but does not discuss traditional ecological risk assessments. The passages on sequencing and resistance monitoring concern antibiotic resistance, not whether long-term monitoring of genome stability and horizontal gene transfer is insufficient. Searches for risk assessment, ecological effects, and long-term genomic monitoring found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.73)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 153

  1. Abdouh M. Floris M. Gao Z. H. Arena V. Arena M. Arena G. O. (2019). Colorectal cancer-derived extracellular vesicles induce transformation of fibroblasts into colon carcinoma cells. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res. 38: 257. 10.1186/s13046-019-1248-2 31200749 PMC6567673 · DOI
  2. Acuña R. Padilla B. E. Flórez-Ramos C. P. Rubio J. D. Herrera J. C. Benavides P. (2012). Adaptive horizontal transfer of a bacterial gene to an invasive insect pest of coffee. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109 4197– 4202. 10.1073/pnas.1121190109 22371593 PMC3306691 · DOI
  3. Adato O. Ninyo N. Gophna U. Snir S. (2015). Detecting horizontal gene transfer between closely related taxa. PLoS Comput. Biol. 11: e1004408. 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004408 26439115 PMC4595140 · DOI
  4. Ardeljan D. Taylor M. S. Ting D. T. Burns K. H. (2020). The human long interspersed Element-1 retrotransposon: an emerging biomarker of neoplasia. Clin. Chem. 63 816– 822. 10.1373/clinchem.2016.257444 28188229 PMC6177209 · DOI
  5. Babaian A. Mager D. L. (2016). Endogenous retroviral promoter exaptation in human cancer. Mob. DNA 7: 24. 10.1186/s13100-016-0080-x 27980689 PMC5134097 · DOI
  6. Babaian A. Romanish M. T. Gagnier L. Kuo L. Y. Karimi M. M. Steidl C. (2016). Onco-exaptation of an endogenous retroviral LTR drives IRF5 expression in Hodgkin lymphoma. Oncogene 35 2542– 2546. 10.1038/onc.2015.308 26279299 · DOI · Paper page
  7. Babić A. Lindner A. B. Vulić M. Stewart E. J. Radman M. (2008). Direct visualization of horizontal gene transfer. Science 319 1533– 1536. 10.1126/science.1153498 18339941 · DOI
  8. Baquero F. Coque T. M. Martínez J.-L. Aracil-Gisbert S. Lanza V. F. (2019). Gene transmission in the one health microbiosphere and the channels of antimicrobial resistance. Front. Microbiol. 10: 2892. 10.3389/fmicb.2019.02892 31921068 PMC6927996 · DOI
  9. Battistelli M. Falcieri E. (2020). Apoptotic bodies: particular extracellular vesicles involved in intercellular communication. Biology 9: E21. 10.3390/biology9010021 31968627 PMC7168913 · DOI
  10. Bergsmedh A. Ehnfors J. Kawane K. Motoyama N. Nagata S. Holmgren L. (2006). DNase II and the Chk2 DNA damage pathway form a genetic barrier blocking replication of horizontally transferred DNA. Mol. Cancer Res. 4 187– 195. 10.1158/1541-7786.MCR-05-0262 16547156 · DOI
  11. Bergsmedh A. Szeles A. Henriksson M. Bratt A. Folkman M. J. Spetz A.-L. (2001). Horizontal transfer of oncogenes by uptake of apoptotic bodies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 6407– 6411. 10.1073/pnas.101129998 11353826 PMC33481 · DOI · Paper page
  12. Berridge M. V. Dong L. Neuzil J. (2015). Mitochondrial DNA in tumor initiation, progression, and metastasis: role of horizontal mtDNA transfer. Cancer Res. 75 3203– 3208. 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-15-0859 26224121 · DOI
  13. Bliven K. A. Maurelli A. T. (2016). Evolution of bacterial pathogens within the human host. Microbiol. Spectr. 4 1– 13. 10.1128/microbiolspec.VMBF-0017-2015 26999399 PMC4804625 · DOI
  14. Borgeaud S. Metzger L. C. Scrignari T. Blokesch M. (2015). The type VI secretion system of Vibrio cholerae fosters horizontal gene transfer. Science 347 63– 67. 10.1126/science.1260064 25554784 · DOI
  15. Bragg D. C. Mangkalaphiban K. Vaine C. A. Kulkarni N. J. Shin D. Yadav R. (2017). Disease onset in X-linked dystonia-parkinsonism correlates with expansion of a hexameric repeat within an SVA retrotransposon in TAF1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 114 E11020– E11028. 10.1073/pnas.1712526114 29229810 PMC5754783 · DOI
  16. Briggs E. M. Ha S. Mita P. Brittingham G. Sciamanna I. Spadafora C. (2018). Long interspersed nuclear element-1 expression and retrotransposition in prostate cancer cells. Mob. DNA 9: 1. 10.1186/s13100-017-0106-z 29308092 PMC5753491 · DOI
  17. Brimacombe C. A. Ding H. Johnson J. A. Beatty J. T. (2015). Homologues of genetic transformation DNA import genes are required for Rhodobacter capsulatus gene transfer agent recipient capability regulated by the response regulator CtrA. J. Bacteriol. 197 2653– 2663. 10.1128/JB.00332-15 26031909 PMC4507343 · DOI
  18. Brown B. P. Wernegreen J. J. (2019). Genomic erosion and extensive horizontal gene transfer in gut-associated Acetobacteraceae. BMC Genomics 20: 472. 10.1186/s12864-019-5844-5 31182035 PMC6558740 · DOI
  19. Cai J. Han Y. Ren H. Chen C. He D. Zhou L. (2013). Extracellular vesicle-mediated transfer of donor genomic DNA to recipient cells is a novel mechanism for genetic influence between cells. J. Mol. Cell Biol. 5 227– 238. 10.1093/jmcb/mjt011 23580760 PMC3733418 · DOI
  20. Cai J. Wu G. Tan X. Han Y. Chen C. Li C. (2014). Transferred BCR/ABL DNA from K562 extracellular vesicles causes chronic myeloid leukemia in immunodeficient mice. PLoS One 9: e105200. 10.1371/journal.pone.0105200 25133686 PMC4136837 · DOI
  21. Cajuso T. Sulo P. Tanskanen T. Katainen R. Taira A. Hänninen U. A. (2019). Retrotransposon insertions can initiate colorectal cancer and are associated with poor survival. Nat. Commun. 10: 4022. 10.1038/s41467-019-11770-0 31492840 PMC6731219 · DOI
  22. Campos M. Capilla R. Naya F. Futami R. Coque T. Moya A. (2019). Simulating multilevel dynamics of antimicrobial resistance in a membrane computing model. mBio 10: e2460-18. 10.1128/mBio.02460-18 30696743 PMC6355984 · DOI
  23. Caruso S. Poon I. K. H. (2018). Apoptotic cell-derived extracellular vesicles: more than just debris. Front. Immunol. 9: 1486. 10.3389/fimmu.2018.01486 30002658 PMC6031707 · DOI · Paper page
  24. Castellano-Castillo D. Moreno-Indias I. Sanchez-Alcoholado L. Ramos-Molina B. Alcaide-Torres J. Morcillo S. (2019). Altered adipose tissue DNA methylation status in metabolic syndrome: relationships between global DNA methylation and specific methylation at adipogenic, lipid metabolism and inflammatory candidate genes and metabolic variables. J. Clin. Med. 8: 87. 10.3390/jcm8010087 30642114 PMC6352101 · DOI
  25. Chang J.-C. Chang H.-S. Wu Y.-C. Cheng W.-L. Lin T.-T. Chang H.-J. (2019). Mitochondrial transplantation regulates antitumour activity, chemoresistance and mitochondrial dynamics in breast cancer. J. Exp. Clin. Cancer Res. 38: 30. 10.1186/s13046-019-1028-z 30674338 PMC6343292 · DOI
  26. Chen J. M. Masson E. Macek M. Jr. Raguénès O. Piskackova T. Fercot B. (2008). Detection of two Alu insertions in the CFTR gene. J. Cyst. Fibros 7 37– 43. 10.1016/j.jcf.2007.04.001 17531547 · DOI
  27. Chen S.-C. Sun G.-X. Rosen B. P. Zhang S.-Y. Deng Y. Zhu B.-K. (2017). Recurrent horizontal transfer of arsenite methyltransferase genes facilitated adaptation of life to arsenic. Sci. Rep. 7: 7741. 10.1038/s41598-017-08313-2 28798375 PMC5552862 · DOI
  28. Chung N. Jonaid G. M. Quinton S. Ross A. Sexton C. E. Alberto A. (2019). Transcriptome analyses of tumor-adjacent somatic tissues reveal genes co-expressed with transposable elements. Mob. DNA 10: 39. 10.1186/s13100-019-0180-5 31497073 PMC6720085 · DOI
  29. Chuong E. B. Elde N. C. Feschotte C. (2016). Regulatory evolution of innate immunity through co-option of endogenous retroviruses. Science 351 1083– 1087. 10.1126/science.aad5497 26941318 PMC4887275 · DOI · Paper page
  30. Cooper R. M. Tsimring L. Hasty J. (2017). Inter-species population dynamics enhance microbial horizontal gene transfer and spread of antibiotic resistance. eLife 6: e25950. 10.7554/eLife.25950 29091031 PMC5701796 · DOI
  31. Cordaux R. Hedges D. J. Herke S. W. Batzer M. A. (2006). Estimating the retrotransposition rate of human Alu elements. Gene 373 134– 137. 10.1016/j.gene.2006.01.019 16522357 · DOI
  32. Costello K. R. Schones D. E. (2018). Chromatin modifications in metabolic disease: potential mediators of long-term disease risk. Wiley interdisciplinary reviews. Syst. Biol. Med. 10: e1416. 10.1002/wsbm.1416 29369528 PMC6002879 · DOI
  33. Crofts T. S. Gasparrini A. J. Dantas G. (2017). Next-generation approaches to understand and combat the antibiotic resistome. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 15 422– 434. 10.1038/nrmicro.2017.28 28392565 PMC5681478 · DOI
  34. Croucher N. J. Mostowy R. Wymant C. Turner P. Bentley S. D. Fraser C. (2016). Horizontal DNA transfer mechanisms of bacteria as weapons of intragenomic conflict. PLoS Biol. 14: e1002394. 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002394 26934590 PMC4774983 · DOI
  35. Cusimano N. Zhang L.-B. Renner S. S. (2007). Reevaluation of the cox1 group I intron in Araceae and angiosperms indicates a history dominated by loss rather than horizontal transfer. Mol. Biol. Evol. 25 265– 276. 10.1093/molbev/msm241 18158323 · DOI
  36. Dauros Singorenko P. Chang V. Whitcombe A. Simonov D. Hong J. Phillips A. (2017). Isolation of membrane vesicles from prokaryotes: a technical and biological comparison reveals heterogeneity. J. Extracell. Vesicles 6: 1324731. 10.1080/20013078.2017.1324731 28717421 PMC5505020 · DOI
  37. de la Fuente A. Alonso-Alconada L. Costa C. Cueva J. Garcia-Caballero T. Lopez-Lopez R. (2015). M-Trap: exosome-based capture of tumor cells as a new technology in peritoneal metastasis. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 107: djv184. 10.1093/jnci/djv184 26150590 PMC4836824 · DOI
  38. de la Taille A. Chen M. W. Burchardt M. Chopin D. K. Buttyan R. (1999). Apoptotic conversion: evidence for exchange of genetic information between prostate cancer cells mediated by apoptosis. Cancer Res. 59 5461– 5463. 10554018
  39. Deniz Ö. Frost J. M. Branco M. R. (2019). Regulation of transposable elements by DNA modifications. Nat. Rev. Genet. 20 417– 431. 10.1038/s41576-019-0106-6 30867571 · DOI
  40. Dianat-Moghadam H. Heydarifard M. Jahanban-Esfahlan R. Panahi Y. Hamishehkar H. Pouremamali F. (2018). Cancer stem cells-emanated therapy resistance: implications for liposomal drug delivery systems. J. Control Release 288 62– 83. 10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.08.043 30184466 · DOI · Paper page
  41. Domingues S. Nielsen K. M. (2017). Membrane vesicles and horizontal gene transfer in prokaryotes. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 38 16– 21. 10.1016/j.mib.2017.03.012 28441577 · DOI
  42. Dong L.-F. Kovarova J. Bajzikova M. Bezawork-Geleta A. Svec D. Endaya B. (2017). Horizontal transfer of whole mitochondria restores tumorigenic potential in mitochondrial DNA-deficient cancer cells. eLife 6: e22187. 10.7554/eLife.22187 28195532 PMC5367896 · DOI
  43. Dong Q. L. Xing X. Y. (2018). Cancer cells arise from bacteria. Cancer Cell Int. 18: 205. 10.1186/s12935-018-0699-4 30564061 PMC6295013 · DOI
  44. Dubey G. P. Ben-Yehuda S. (2011). Intercellular nanotubes mediate bacterial communication. Cell 144 590– 600. 10.1016/j.cell.2011.01.015 21335240 · DOI
  45. El Baidouri M. Carpentier M.-C. Cooke R. Gao D. Lasserre E. Llauro C. (2014). Widespread and frequent horizontal transfers of transposable elements in plants. Genome Res. 24 831– 838. 10.1101/gr.164400.113 24518071 PMC4009612 · DOI
  46. Engelstädter J. Harms K. Johnsen P. J. (2016). The evolutionary dynamics of integrons in changing environments. ISME J. 10: 1296. 10.1038/ismej.2015.222 26849314 PMC5029196 · DOI
  47. Ewing A. D. Kazazian H. H. Jr. (2010). High-throughput sequencing reveals extensive variation in human-specific L1 content in individual human genomes. Genome Res. 20 1262– 1270. 10.1101/gr.106419.110 20488934 PMC2928504 · DOI
  48. Eyres I. Boschetti C. Crisp A. Smith T. P. Fontaneto D. Tunnacliffe A. (2015). Horizontal gene transfer in bdelloid rotifers is ancient, ongoing and more frequent in species from desiccating habitats. BMC Biol. 13: 90. 10.1186/s12915-015-0202-9 26537913 PMC4632278 · DOI
  49. Ficht T. A. (2011). Bacterial exchange via nanotubes: lessons learned from the history of molecular biology. Front. Microbiol. 2: 179. 10.3389/fmicb.2011.00179 21927613 PMC3168790 · DOI
  50. Fischer F. Robbe-Saule M. Turlin E. Mancuso F. Michel V. Richaud P. (2016). Characterization in Helicobacter pylori of a nickel transporter essential for colonization that was acquired during evolution by gastric Helicobacter species. PLoS Pathog. 12: e1006018. 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006018 27923069 PMC5140060 · DOI
  51. Fischer S. Cornils K. Speiseder T. Badbaran A. Reimer R. Indenbirken D. (2016). Indication of horizontal DNA gene transfer by extracellular vesicles. PLoS One 11: e0163665. 10.1371/journal.pone.0163665 27684368 PMC5042424 · DOI
  52. Flot J.-F. Hespeels B. Li X. Noel B. Arkhipova I. Danchin E. G. (2013). Genomic evidence for ameiotic evolution in the bdelloid rotifer Adineta vaga. Nature 500 453– 457. 10.1038/nature12326 23873043 · DOI
  53. Frezza C. Gottlieb E. (2009). Mitochondria in cancer: not just innocent bystanders. Semin. Cancer Biol. 19 4– 11. 10.1016/j.semcancer.2008.11.008 19101633 · DOI
  54. Fronzes R. Christie P. J. Waksman G. (2009). The structural biology of type IV secretion systems. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 7 703– 714. 10.1038/nrmicro2218 19756009 PMC3869563 · DOI
  55. Gao L. Wang L. Dai T. Jin K. Zhang Z. Wang S. (2018). Tumor-derived exosomes antagonize innate antiviral immunity. Nat. Immunol. 19 233– 245. 10.1038/s41590-017-0043-5 29358709 · DOI
  56. García-Olmo D. C. Domínguez C. García-Arranz M. Anker P. Stroun M. García-Verdugo J. M. (2010). Cell-free nucleic acids circulating in the plasma of colorectal cancer patients induce the oncogenic transformation of susceptible cultured cells. Cancer Res. 70 560– 567. 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-09-3513 20068178 · DOI
  57. Garcia-Solache M. Rice L. B. (2019). The enterococcus: a model of adaptability to its environment. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 32: e58-18. 10.1128/CMR.00058-18 30700430 PMC6431128 · DOI
  58. Garcia-Vallvé S. Romeu A. Palau J. (2000). Horizontal gene transfer in bacterial and archaeal complete genomes. Genome Res. 10 1719– 1725. 10.1101/gr.130000 11076857 PMC310969 · DOI
  59. Gillings M. R. (2014). Integrons: past, present, and future. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 78 257– 277. 10.1128/MMBR.00056-13 24847022 PMC4054258 · DOI
  60. Goldberg Y. P. Rommens J. M. Andrew S. E. Hutchinson G. B. Lin B. Theilmann J. (1993). Identification of an Alu retrotransposition event in close proximity to a strong candidate gene for Huntington’s disease. Nature 362 370– 373. 10.1038/362370a0 8384324 · DOI
  61. Gomari H. Forouzandeh Moghadam M. Soleimani M. (2018). Targeted cancer therapy using engineered exosome as a natural drug delivery vehicle. Onco Targets Ther. 11 5753– 5762. 10.2147/OTT.S173110 30254468 PMC6140699 · DOI
  62. Griessinger E. Moschoi R. Biondani G. Peyron J.-F. (2017). Mitochondrial transfer in the leukemia microenvironment. Trends Cancer 3 828– 839. 10.1016/j.trecan.2017.10.003 29198439 · DOI
  63. Guo Y. Ji X. Liu J. Fan D. Zhou Q. Chen C. (2019). Effects of exosomes on pre-metastatic niche formation in tumors. Mol. Cancer 18: 39. 10.1186/s12943-019-0995-1 30857545 PMC6413442 · DOI
  64. Hall J. P. J. Brockhurst M. A. Harrison E. (2017). Sampling the mobile gene pool: innovation via horizontal gene transfer in bacteria. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci. 372: 20160424. 10.1098/rstb.2016.0424 29061896 PMC5665811 · DOI
  65. Hancks D. C. Kazazian H. H. Jr. (2016). Roles for retrotransposon insertions in human disease. Mob. DNA 7: 9. 10.1186/s13100-016-0065-9 27158268 PMC4859970 · DOI · Paper page
  66. Hancks D. C. Kazazian H. H. (2012). Active human retrotransposons: variation and disease. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 22 191– 203. 10.1016/j.gde.2012.02.006 22406018 PMC3376660 · DOI · Paper page
  67. Holmgren L. Szeles A. Rajnavolgyi E. Folkman J. Klein G. Ernberg I. (1999). Horizontal transfer of DNA by the uptake of apoptotic bodies. Blood 93 3956– 3963. 10.1111/j.1423-0410.2002.tb05323.x 10339505 · DOI
  68. Hong J. Dauros-Singorenko P. Whitcombe A. Payne L. Blenkiron C. Phillips A. (2019). Analysis of the Escherichia coli extracellular vesicle proteome identifies markers of purity and culture conditions. J. Extracell. Vesicles 8: 1632099. 10.1080/20013078.2019.1632099 31275533 PMC6598517 · DOI
  69. Hoshino A. Costa-Silva B. Shen T.-L. Rodrigues G. Hashimoto A. Tesic Mark M. (2015). Tumour exosome integrins determine organotropic metastasis. Nature 527 329– 335. 10.1038/nature15756 26524530 PMC4788391 · DOI · Paper page
  70. Husnik F. McCutcheon J. P. (2016). Repeated replacement of an intrabacterial symbiont in the tripartite nested mealybug symbiosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 113 E5416– E5424. 10.1073/pnas.1603910113 27573819 PMC5027413 · DOI
  71. Husnik F. McCutcheon J. P. (2018). Functional horizontal gene transfer from bacteria to eukaryotes. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 16 67– 79. 10.1038/nrmicro.2017.137 29176581 · DOI
  72. Husnik F. Nikoh N. Koga R. Ross L. Duncan R. P. Fujie M. (2013). Horizontal gene transfer from diverse bacteria to an insect genome enables a tripartite nested mealybug symbiosis. Cell 153 1567– 1578. 10.1016/j.cell.2013.05.040 23791183 · DOI
  73. Ivancevic A. M. Kortschak R. D. Bertozzi T. Adelson D. L. (2018). Horizontal transfer of BovB and L1 retrotransposons in eukaryotes. Genome Biol. 19: 85. 10.1186/s13059-018-1456-7 29983116 PMC6036668 · DOI
  74. Jachowicz J. W. Bing X. Pontabry J. Bošković A. Rando O. J. Torres-Padilla M.-E. (2017). LINE-1 activation after fertilization regulates global chromatin accessibility in the early mouse embryo. Nat. Genet. 49 1502– 1510. 10.1038/ng.3945 28846101 · DOI
  75. Jacques P. -É Jeyakani J. Bourque G. (2013). The majority of primate-specific regulatory sequences are derived from transposable elements. PLoS Genet. 9: e1003504. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003504 23675311 PMC3649963 · DOI
  76. Jahr S. Hentze H. Englisch S. Hardt D. Fackelmayer F. O. Hesch R.-D. (2001). DNA fragments in the blood plasma of cancer patients: quantitations and evidence for their origin from apoptotic and necrotic cells. Cancer Res. 61 1659– 1665. 11245480
  77. Jang H. S. Shah N. M. Du A. Y. Dailey Z. Z. Pehrsson E. C. Godoy P. M. (2019). Transposable elements drive widespread expression of oncogenes in human cancers. Nat. Genet. 51 611– 617. 10.1038/s41588-019-0373-3 30926969 PMC6443099 · DOI
  78. Jiang L. Paone S. Caruso S. Atkin-Smith G. K. Phan T. K. Hulett M. D. (2017). Determining the contents and cell origins of apoptotic bodies by flow cytometry. Sci. Rep. 7: 14444. 10.1038/s41598-017-14305-z 29089562 PMC5663759 · DOI
  79. Jose C. Bellance N. Rossignol R. (2011). Choosing between glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation: a tumor’s dilemma? Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1807 552– 561. 10.1016/j.bbabio.2010.10.012 20955683 · DOI · Paper page
  80. Karnkowska A. Vacek V. Zubáèová Z. Treitli S. C. Petrželková R. Eme L. (2016). A eukaryote without a mitochondrial organelle. Curr. Biol. 26 1274– 1284. 10.1016/j.cub.2016.03.053 27185558 · DOI
  81. Kawamura Y. Sanchez Calle A. Yamamoto Y. Sato T. A. Ochiya T. (2019). Extracellular vesicles mediate the horizontal transfer of an active LINE-1 retrotransposon. J. Extracell. Vesicles 8: 1643214. 10.1080/20013078.2019.1643214 31448067 PMC6691892 · DOI
  82. Kazazian H. H. Jr. Wong C. Youssoufian H. Scott A. F. Phillips D. G. Antonarakis S. E. (1988). Haemophilia A resulting from de novo insertion of L1 sequences represents a novel mechanism for mutation in man. Nature 332 164– 166. 10.1038/332164a0 2831458 · DOI
  83. Kirkup B. (2017). Horizontal gene transfer: learning from losers. eLife 6: e32703. 10.7554/eLife.32703 29148975 PMC5693110 · DOI
  84. Klieve A. V. Yokoyama M. T. Forster R. J. Ouwerkerk D. Bain P. A. Mawhinney E. L. (2005). Naturally occurring DNA transfer system associated with membrane vesicles in cellulolytic Ruminococcus spp. of ruminal origin. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71 4248– 4253. 10.1128/AEM.71.8.4248-4253.2005 16085810 PMC1183309 · DOI
  85. Knöppel A. Näsvall J. Andersson D. I. (2017). Evolution of antibiotic resistance without antibiotic exposure. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 61: e1495-17. 10.1128/AAC.01495-17 28893783 PMC5655081 · DOI
  86. Kumar P. Bag S. Ghosh T. S. Dey P. Dayal M. Saha B. (2017). Molecular insights into antimicrobial resistance traits of multidrug resistant enteric pathogens isolated from India. Sci. Rep. 7: 14468. 10.1038/s41598-017-14791-1 29089611 PMC5663842 · DOI
  87. Kunarso G. Chia N.-Y. Jeyakani J. Hwang C. Lu X. Chan Y.-S. (2010). Transposable elements have rewired the core regulatory network of human embryonic stem cells. Nat. Genet. 42 631– 634. 10.1038/ng.600 20526341 · DOI
  88. Kuroda M. Ohta T. Uchiyama I. Baba T. Yuzawa H. Kobayashi I. (2001). Whole genome sequencing of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet 357 1225– 1240. 10.1016/s0140-6736(00)04403-2 11418146 · DOI
  89. Lacroix B. Citovsky V. (2016). Transfer of DNA from bacteria to eukaryotes. mBio 7: e863-16. 10.1128/mBio.00863-16 27406565 PMC4958254 · DOI
  90. Lang A. S. Zhaxybayeva O. Beatty J. T. (2012). Gene transfer agents: phage-like elements of genetic exchange. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 10 472– 482. 10.1038/nrmicro2802 22683880 PMC3626599 · DOI
  91. Leclerc Q. J. Lindsay J. A. Knight G. M. (2019). Mathematical modelling to study the horizontal transfer of antimicrobial resistance genes in bacteria: current state of the field and recommendations. J. R. Soc. Interface 16: 20190260. 10.1098/rsif.2019.0260 31409239 PMC6731517 · DOI
  92. Lepuschitz S. Huhulescu S. Hyden P. Springer B. Rattei T. Allerberger F. (2018). Characterization of a community-acquired-MRSA USA300 isolate from a river sample in Austria and whole genome sequence based comparison to a diverse collection of USA300 isolates. Sci. Rep. 8: 9467. 10.1038/s41598-018-27781-8 29930324 PMC6013426 · DOI
  93. Limoni S. K. Moghadam M. F. Moazzeni S. M. Gomari H. Salimi F. (2019). Engineered exosomes for targeted transfer of siRNA to HER2 positive breast cancer cells. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 187 352– 364. 10.1007/s12010-018-2813-4 29951961 · DOI
  94. Liu Y. Bai L. Guo K. Jia Y. Zhang K. Liu Q. (2019). Focused ultrasound-augmented targeting delivery of nanosonosensitizers from homogenous exosomes for enhanced sonodynamic cancer therapy. Theranostics 9 5261– 5281. 10.7150/thno.33183 31410214 PMC6691590 · DOI
  95. Liu Y. Defourny K. A. Smid E. J. Abee T. (2018). Gram-positive bacterial extracellular vesicles and their impact on health and disease. Front. Microbiol. 9: 1502. 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01502 30038605 PMC6046439 · DOI
  96. Lu X. Sachs F. Ramsay L. Jacques P. -É. Göke J. Bourque G. (2014). The retrovirus HERVH is a long noncoding RNA required for human embryonic stem cell identity. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 21 423– 425. 10.1038/nsmb.2799 24681886 · DOI
  97. Ma Q. Liang M. Wu Y. Ding N. Duan L. Yu T. (2019). Mature osteoclast-derived apoptotic bodies promote osteogenic differentiation via RANKL-mediated reverse signaling. J. Biol. Chem. 294 11240– 11247. 10.1074/jbc.RA119.007625 31167789 PMC6643026 · DOI
  98. Manson J. M. Hancock L. E. Gilmore M. S. (2010). Mechanism of chromosomal transfer of Enterococcus faecalis pathogenicity island, capsule, antimicrobial resistance, and other traits. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107 12269– 12274. 10.1073/pnas.1000139107 20566881 PMC2901427 · DOI · Paper page
  99. Marraffini L. A. Sontheimer E. J. (2008). CRISPR interference limits horizontal gene transfer in staphylococci by targeting DNA. Science 322 1843– 1845. 10.1126/science.1165771 19095942 PMC2695655 · DOI
  100. Mazel D. (2006). Integrons: agents of bacterial evolution. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 4 608– 620. 10.1038/nrmicro1462 16845431 · DOI
  101. Nazir R. Shen J.-P. Wang J.-T. Hu H.-W. He J.-Z. (2017). Fungal networks serve as novel ecological routes for enrichment and dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes as exhibited by microcosm experiments. Sci. Rep. 7: 15457. 10.1038/s41598-017-15660-7 29133838 PMC5684214 · DOI
  102. Nishida-Aoki N. Tominaga N. Takeshita F. Sonoda H. Yoshioka Y. Ochiya T. (2017). Disruption of circulating extracellular vesicles as a novel therapeutic strategy against cancer metastasis. Mol. Ther. 25 181– 191. 10.1016/j.ymthe.2016.10.009 28129113 PMC5363297 · DOI · Paper page
  103. Ofir G. Sorek R. (2017). Vesicles spread susceptibility to phages. Cell 168 13– 15. 10.1016/j.cell.2016.12.035 28086086 · DOI
  104. Ono R. Yasuhiko Y. Aisaki K.-I. Kitajima S. Kanno J. Hirabayashi Y. (2019). Exosome-mediated horizontal gene transfer occurs in double-strand break repair during genome editing. Commun. Biol. 2: 57. 10.1038/s42003-019-0300-2 30775458 PMC6368560 · DOI
  105. Pärnänen K. Karkman A. Tamminen M. Lyra C. Hultman J. Paulin L. (2016). Evaluating the mobility potential of antibiotic resistance genes in environmental resistomes without metagenomics. Sci. Rep. 6: 35790. 10.1038/srep35790 27767072 PMC5073339 · DOI
  106. Paterson I. K. Hoyle A. Ochoa G. Baker-Austin C. Taylor N. G. (2016). Optimising antibiotic usage to treat bacterial infections. Sci. Rep. 6: 37853. 10.1038/srep37853 27892497 PMC5124968 · DOI
  107. Payer L. M. Burns K. H. (2019). Transposable elements in human genetic disease. Nat. Rev. Genet. 20 760– 772. 31515540
  108. Percharde M. Lin C. J. Yin Y. Guan J. Peixoto G. A. Bulut-Karslioglu A. (2018). A LINE1-Nucleolin partnership regulates early development and ESC identity. Cell 174 391– 405.e19. 10.1016/j.cell.2018.05.043 29937225 PMC6046266 · DOI
  109. Peterson E. Kaur P. (2018). Antibiotic resistance mechanisms in bacteria: relationships between resistance determinants of antibiotic producers, environmental bacteria, and clinical pathogens. Front. Microbiol. 9: 2928. 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02928 30555448 PMC6283892 · DOI
  110. Poon I. K. H. Parkes M. A. F. Jiang L. Atkin-Smith G. K. Tixeira R. Gregory C. D. (2019). Moving beyond size and phosphatidylserine exposure: evidence for a diversity of apoptotic cell-derived extracellular vesicles in vitro. J. Extracell. Vesicles 8: 1608786. 10.1080/20013078.2019.1608786 31069027 PMC6493268 · DOI
  111. Porse A. Schou T. S. Munck C. Ellabaan M. M. Sommer M. O. (2018). Biochemical mechanisms determine the functional compatibility of heterologous genes. Nat. Commun. 9: 522. 10.1038/s41467-018-02944-3 29410400 PMC5802803 · DOI
  112. Price V. J. Mcbride S. W. Hullahalli K. Chatterjee A. Duerkop B. A. Palmer K. L. (2019). Enterococcus faecalis CRISPR-Cas is a robust barrier to conjugative antibiotic resistance dissemination in the murine intestine. mSphere 4: e464-19. 10.1128/mSphere.00464-19 31341074 PMC6656873 · DOI
  113. Rancurel C. Legrand L. Danchin E. G. (2017). Alienness: rapid detection of candidate horizontal gene transfers across the tree of life. Genes 8: 248. 10.3390/genes8100248 28961181 PMC5664098 · DOI
  114. Rice D. W. Alverson A. J. Richardson A. O. Young G. J. Sanchez-Puerta M. V. Munzinger J. (2013). Horizontal transfer of entire genomes via mitochondrial fusion in the angiosperm Amborella. Science 342 1468– 1473. 10.1126/science.1246275 24357311 · DOI
  115. Richardson A. O. Palmer J. D. (2006). Horizontal gene transfer in plants. J. Exp. Bot. 58 1– 9. 17030541
  116. Riley D. R. Sieber K. B. Robinson K. M. White J. R. Ganesan A. Nourbakhsh S. (2013). Bacteria-human somatic cell lateral gene transfer is enriched in cancer samples. PLoS Comput. Biol. 9: e1003107. 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003107 23840181 PMC3688693 · DOI
  117. Robinson K. M. Crabtree J. Mattick J. S. Anderson K. E. Hotopp J. C. D. (2017). Distinguishing potential bacteria-tumor associations from contamination in a secondary data analysis of public cancer genome sequence data. Microbiome 5: 9. 10.1186/s40168-016-0224-8 28118849 PMC5264480 · DOI
  118. Robinson K. M. Sieber K. B. Hotopp J. C. D. (2013). A review of bacteria-animal lateral gene transfer may inform our understanding of diseases like cancer. PLoS Genet. 9: e1003877. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003877 24146634 PMC3798261 · DOI
  119. Romanish M. T. Cohen C. J. Mager D. L. (2010). Potential mechanisms of endogenous retroviral-mediated genomic instability in human cancer. Semin. Cancer Biol. 20 246– 253. 10.1016/j.semcancer.2010.05.005 20685251 · DOI
  120. Roney J. K. Khatibi P. A. Westwood J. H. (2007). Cross-species translocation of mRNA from host plants into the parasitic plant dodder. Plant Physiol. 143 1037– 1043. 10.1104/pp.106.088369 17189329 PMC1803716 · DOI
  121. Ross J. P. Rand K. N. Molloy P. L. (2010). Hypomethylation of repeated DNA sequences in cancer. Epigenomics 2 245– 269. 10.2217/epi.10.2 22121873 · DOI
  122. Rossato D. O. Ludwig A. Deprá M. Loreto E. L. Ruiz A. Valente V. L. (2014). BuT2 is a member of the third major group of hAT transposons and is involved in horizontal transfer events in the genus Drosophila. Genome Biol. Evol. 6 352– 365. 10.1093/gbe/evu017 24459285 PMC3942097 · DOI
  123. Saleh A. Macia A. Muotri A. R. (2019). Transposable elements, inflammation, and neurological disease. Front. Neurol. 10: 894. 10.3389/fneur.2019.00894 31481926 PMC6710400 · DOI · Paper page
  124. Salzberg S. L. (2017). Horizontal gene transfer is not a hallmark of the human genome. Genome Biol. 18: 85. 10.1186/s13059-017-1214-2 28482857 PMC5422933 · DOI
  125. Schaack S. Gilbert C. Feschotte C. (2010). Promiscuous DNA: horizontal transfer of transposable elements and why it matters for eukaryotic evolution. Trends Ecol. Evol. 25 537– 546. 10.1016/j.tree.2010.06.001 20591532 PMC2940939 · DOI
  126. Schumann G. G. Fuchs N. V. Tristán-Ramos P. Sebe A. Ivics Z. Heras S. R. (2019). The impact of transposable element activity on therapeutically relevant human stem cells. Mob. DNA 10: 9. 10.1186/s13100-019-0151-x 30899334 PMC6408843 · DOI
  127. Seitz P. Modarres H. P. Borgeaud S. Bulushev R. D. Steinbock L. J. Radenovic A. (2014). ComEA is essential for the transfer of external DNA into the periplasm in naturally transformable Vibrio cholerae cells. PLoS Genet. 10: e1004066. 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004066 24391524 PMC3879209 · DOI
  128. Shin J.-E. Lin C. Lim H. N. (2016). Horizontal transfer of DNA methylation patterns into bacterial chromosomes. Nucleic Acids Res. 44 4460– 4471. 10.1093/nar/gkw230 27084942 PMC4872104 · DOI
  129. Siebenthall K. T. Miller C. P. Vierstra J. D. Mathieu J. Tretiakova M. Reynolds A. (2019). Integrated epigenomic profiling reveals endogenous retrovirus reactivation in renal cell carcinoma. EBioMedicine 41 427– 442. 10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.01.063 30827930 PMC6441874 · DOI
  130. Soucy S. M. Huang J. Gogarten J. P. (2015). Horizontal gene transfer: building the web of life. Nat. Rev. Genet. 16 472– 482. 10.1038/nrg3962 26184597 · DOI
  131. Spetz A. L. Patterson B. K. Lore K. Andersson J. Holmgren L. (1999). Functional gene transfer of HIV DNA by an HIV receptor-independent mechanism. J. Immunol. 163 736– 742. 10395665
  132. Sun T. Renner S. S. Xu Y. Qin Y. Wu J. Sun G. (2016). Two hAT transposon genes were transferred from Brassicaceae to broomrapes and are actively expressed in some recipients. Sci. Rep. 6: 30192. 10.1038/srep30192 27452947 PMC4958966 · DOI
  133. Szabó G. Schulz F. Toenshoff E. R. Volland J.-M. Finkel O. M. Belkin S. (2017). Convergent patterns in the evolution of mealybug symbioses involving different intrabacterial symbionts. ISME J. 11 715– 726. 10.1038/ismej.2016.148 27983719 PMC5322300 · DOI
  134. Tam O. H. Ostrow L. W. Gale Hammell M. (2019). Diseases of the nERVous system: retrotransposon activity in neurodegenerative disease. Mob. DNA 10: 32. 10.1186/s13100-019-0176-1 31372185 PMC6659213 · DOI
  135. Tan A. S. Baty J. W. Dong L. F. Bezawork-Geleta A. Endaya B. Goodwin J. (2015). Mitochondrial genome acquisition restores respiratory function and tumorigenic potential of cancer cells without mitochondrial DNA. Cell Metab. 21 81– 94. 10.1016/j.cmet.2014.12.003 25565207 · DOI · Paper page
  136. Thomas C. M. Nielsen K. M. (2005). Mechanisms of, and barriers to, horizontal gene transfer between bacteria. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 3 711– 721. 10.1038/nrmicro1234 16138099 · DOI
  137. Trejo-Becerril C. Pérez-Cárdenas E. Taja-Chayeb L. Anker P. Herrera-Goepfert R. Medina-Velázquez L. A. (2012). Cancer progression mediated by horizontal gene transfer in an in vivo model. PLoS One 7: e52754. 10.1371/journal.pone.0052754 23285175 PMC3532306 · DOI
  138. Turcot V. Tchernof A. Deshaies Y. Pérusse L. Bélisle A. Marceau S. (2012). LINE-1 methylation in visceral adipose tissue of severely obese individuals is associated with metabolic syndrome status and related phenotypes. Clin. Epigenet. 4: 10. 10.1186/1868-7083-4-10 22748066 PMC3464682 · DOI
  139. Tzipilevich E. Habusha M. Ben-Yehuda S. (2017). Acquisition of phage sensitivity by bacteria through exchange of phage receptors. Cell 168 186– 199. 10.1016/j.cell.2016.12.003 28041851 · DOI
  140. Viale A. Corti D. Draetta G. F. (2015). Tumors and mitochondrial respiration: a neglected connection. Cancer Res. 75 3685– 3686. 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-15-0491 26374463 · DOI
  141. Wallau G. L. Vieira C. Loreto E. L. S. (2018). Genetic exchange in eukaryotes through horizontal transfer: connected by the mobilome. Mob. DNA 9: 6. 10.1186/s13100-018-0112-9 29422954 PMC5791352 · DOI
  142. Wang J. Xie G. Singh M. Ghanbarian A. T. Raskó T. Szvetnik A. (2014). Primate-specific endogenous retrovirus-driven transcription defines naive-like stem cells. Nature 516 405– 409. 10.1038/nature13804 25317556 · DOI
  143. Wang T. Zeng J. Lowe C. B. Sellers R. G. Salama S. R. Yang M. (2007). Species-specific endogenous retroviruses shape the transcriptional network of the human tumor suppressor protein p53. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104 18613– 18618. 10.1073/pnas.0703637104 18003932 PMC2141825 · DOI
  144. Wiedenbeck J. Cohan F. M. (2011). Origins of bacterial diversity through horizontal genetic transfer and adaptation to new ecological niches. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 35 957– 976. 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00292.x 21711367 · DOI
  145. Willms E. Cabańas C. Mäger I. Wood M. J. A. Vader P. (2018). Extracellular vesicle heterogeneity: subpopulations, isolation techniques, and diverse functions in cancer progression. Front. Immunol. 9: 738. 10.3389/fimmu.2018.00738 29760691 PMC5936763 · DOI
  146. Wybouw N. Dermauw W. Tirry L. Stevens C. Grbić M. Feyereisen R. (2014). A gene horizontally transferred from bacteria protects arthropods from host plant cyanide poisoning. eLife 3: e02365. 10.7554/eLife.02365 24843024 PMC4011162 · DOI
  147. Xie M. Hong C. Zhang B. Lowdon R. F. Xing X. Li D. (2013). DNA hypomethylation within specific transposable element families associates with tissue-specific enhancer landscape. Nat. Genet. 45 836– 841. 10.1038/ng.2649 23708189 PMC3695047 · DOI
  148. Xu X. Lai Y. Hua Z.-C. (2019). Apoptosis and apoptotic body: disease message and therapeutic target potentials. Biosci. Rep. 39: BSR20180992. 10.1042/BSR20180992 30530866 PMC6340950 · DOI
  149. Yan B. Wang H. Li F. Li C. (2006). Regulation of mammalian horizontal gene transfer by apoptotic DNA fragmentation. Br. J. Cancer 95 1696– 1700. 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603484 17146478 PMC2360754 · DOI
  150. Yang Z. Zhang Y. Wafula E. K. Honaas L. A. Ralph P. E. Jones S. (2016). Horizontal gene transfer is more frequent with increased heterotrophy and contributes to parasite adaptation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 113 E7010– E7019. 10.1073/pnas.1608765113 27791104 PMC5111717 · DOI
  151. Yoshida S. Maruyama S. Nozaki H. Shirasu K. (2010). Horizontal gene transfer by the parasitic plant Striga hermonthica. Science 328: 1128. 10.1126/science.1187145 20508124 · DOI
  152. Zagrobelny M. Bak S. Rasmussen A. V. Jørgensen B. Naumann C. M. Møller B. L. (2004). Cyanogenic glucosides and plant–insect interactions. Phytochemistry 65 293– 306. 10.1016/j.phytochem.2003.10.016 14751300 · DOI
  153. Zhang Y. Fernandez-Aparicio M. Wafula E. K. Das M. Jiao Y. Wickett N. J. (2013). Evolution of a horizontally acquired legume gene, albumin 1, in the parasitic plant Phelipanche aegyptiaca and related species. BMC Evol. Biol. 13: 48. 10.1186/1471-2148-13-48 23425243 PMC3601976 · DOI

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Emamalipour, M., Seidi, K., Zununi Vahed, S., Jahanban-Esfahlan, A., Jaymand, M., Majdi, H., Amoozgar, Z., Chitkushev, L. T., Javaheri, T., Jahanban-Esfahlan, R., & Zare, P.
Affiliations
  • Tabriz University of Medical Sciences (IR)
  • Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences (IR)
  • Harvard University (US)
  • Boston University (US)
Corresponding author
Javaheri, Tahereh
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2020-05-19
Volume
8
Pages
229-229
ISSN
2296-634X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fcell.2020.00229
PMC
PMC7248198
OpenAlex
W3025727691
Cited by
198
References
9
Citations by year
2026: 28 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 39 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 2
FWCI
1.95
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Instytut Biologii Doswiadczalnej im. M. Nenckiego PAN
  • Uniwersytet Kardynała Stefana Wyszyńskiego w Warszawie
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › CRISPR and Genetic Engineering
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Extracellular vesicles in disease
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cancer Research › Cancer Genomics and Diagnostics
Keywords
horizontal gene transfer, extracellular vesicles, nanotubes, cell-free DNA, apoptotic bodies, disease progression, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, metabolic disorders, antibiotic resistance, genome editing, gene therapy, evolutionary flexibility

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review