Psychological Distress and Its Mediating Effect on Experiences of Online Risk: The Case for Vulnerable Young People
Open accessAbstract
There is strong evidence showing that vulnerable children and adolescents, such as children who are carers for their family, in care themselves, or who have a physical disability or special educational needs, are at greater risk of mental health problems and poor social wellbeing. Recent research indicates this heterogenous but vulnerable group is also disadvantaged online and may be at greater risk of harm. This study aimed to examine participants’ vulnerability (vulnerable vs. non-vulnerable), psychological distress, parental e-safety support, and online lives, specifically their experiences of online risk. The roles of psychological distress and parental e-safety support were explored as possible mediators and moderators, respectively, for the relationship between vulnerability and online risk. Survey data was collected from 15,278 participants (11–17 years old; M = 12.60, SD = 1.44), 46.6% identified as females, 46.6% identified as males and 6% identified as “other”. Participants were recruited from schools/colleges in different parts of England, of whom 3,242 were categorised as vulnerable. Using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) the results showed that, when compared to the non-vulnerable participants, the vulnerable groups (single or multiple vulnerabilities) experienced more psychological distress and online risks. They also received less e-safety support from parents or carers. Furthermore, mediation and moderated mediation analysis showed that the relationship between vulnerability and online risk was significantly and partially mediated by psychological distress. Parental e-safety support was found to moderate the relationship between psychological distress and online risk and between vulnerability and online risk. In conclusion, the results demonstrated that vulnerability offline is mirrored online. Psychological interventions and parental e-safety support are required to navigate the internet safely. Children’s services and practitioners should consider online risks in their assessments and interventions.
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Several studies mention that children and adolescents with disabilities are identified as vulnerable to online victimization.
“Several studies mention that children and adolescents with disabilities are identified as vulnerable to online victimization [4,20,23].”
From Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Children and Adolescents with Disabilities: A Systematic Review (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
The Introduction defines vulnerable young people to include those with physical disabilities, and Disadvantaged Online reports that this broader group experienced more online risk. The paper does not establish a disability-specific finding about online victimization: its Online Risks section measures a range of experiences, including harmful content and problematic activities, not just victimization. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThose with Williams Syndrome and ASD shared experiences of perpetrators providing them with gifts and encountered cyber-threats, cyber-harassment, and grooming, akin to individuals with 22q11 deletion syndrome and intellectual disabilities.
“Furthermore, those with Williams Syndrome and ASD [26] shared experiences of perpetrators providing them with gifts in their experience of OCSEA [23], and encountered cyber-threats, cyber-harassment, and grooming, akin to the occurrences reported by individuals with 22q11 deletion syndrome [26] and intellectual disabilities [22].”
From Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Children and Adolescents with Disabilities: A Systematic Review (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
The Participants section includes young people with learning difficulties among the vulnerable group, and Disadvantaged Online reports that this group had greater exposure to online risks. But the paper does not report cyber-threats, cyber-harassment, and grooming specifically among participants with intellectual disabilities. The Williams syndrome, ASD, 22q11 deletion syndrome, and gifts portions carry other citations in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSpecific disabilities mentioned include autism spectrum disorder, Williams Syndrome, intellectual disabilities, 22q11 deletion syndrome, and physical disabilities including deafness, and chronic health problems.
“Specific disabilities are mentioned, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD) [17,26,27], Williams Syndrome [17,26], intellectual disabilities [22,26,27], 22q11 deletion syndrome (which involves developmental delays and may face mild intellectual disability or learning disabilities) [26], and physical disabilities [23,25] including deafness [18], and chronic health problems [25].”
From Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Children and Adolescents with Disabilities: A Systematic Review (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
The Participants section (page unavailable) explicitly lists autism spectrum disorder, supporting the part of the sentence attributed to this paper. It lists learning difficulties but does not identify them as intellectual disabilities, and it does not mention Williams syndrome or 22q11 deletion syndrome. The sentence cites other sources for physical disabilities, deafness, and chronic health problems. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPerpetrators employ various techniques, such as manipulation, cyberstalking, coercion, providing gifts to victims, cyber-threats, cyber-harassment, sexting, sextortion, grooming, and digital alteration of images.
“In addition, the studies analyzed reveal that perpetrators employ various techniques, such as manipulation [23,27], cyberstalking [13], coercion [27], providing gifts to victims [23], cyber-threats [13,21,23,26,27], cyber-harassment [13,26], sexting [13,21], sextortion [13], grooming [4,13,19,27], and digital alteration of images [21].”
From Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Children and Adolescents with Disabilities: A Systematic Review (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
The Introduction (page unavailable) discusses online grooming as a risk, and the Online Risks section (page unavailable) includes sexting among potentially problematic activities. The paper does not establish these as perpetrator techniques or support the techniques attributed to it in the citing sentence: cyberstalking, cyber-threats, cyber-harassment, and sextortion. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSocietal perceptions that may not universally recognize the online sexual exploitation of children and adolescents as serious or harmful make addressing it complex.
“Furthermore, the complexities of addressing issues related to the sexual exploitation of children and adolescents in the online context become apparent when considering societal perceptions that may not universally recognize such exploitation as serious or harmful for children [23,29].”
From Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Children and Adolescents with Disabilities: A Systematic Review (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
The Introduction (page unavailable) identifies child sexual exploitation as an online risk and says professionals or carers may miss digital harms affecting vulnerable young people. It does not say that societal perceptions fail to recognize online sexual exploitation as serious or harmful, or that those perceptions complicate efforts to address it. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Family circumstances - financial strains or difficulties, familial dysfunction, and parental substance misuse - could contribute to the heightened susceptibility of children and adolescents with disabilities to OCSEA.
“data suggested that family circumstances, encompassing financial strains, dysfunction, and parental substance misuse, could contribute to this heightened susceptibility [23].”
From Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Children and Adolescents with Disabilities: A Systematic Review (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
The Introduction includes family or social challenges and physical disability among vulnerabilities, and the Parental e-Safety Support section links less parental guidance with greater online risk. The paper does not identify financial strain, family dysfunction, or parental substance misuse as contributors, nor does it establish this relationship specifically for online child sexual exploitation and abuse among children with disabilities. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn terms of relationship to the victim, perpetrators included family members, educators, religious individuals, peers, neighbors, trusted individuals, and people met online as groomers and cyber-bullies.
“In terms of the relationship to the victim, perpetrators included family members [23,24], educators [23,24], religious individuals [23,24], peers [23,24], neighbors [23,24], trusted individuals [23,24], and people met online as groomers [4,17,25] and cyber-bullies [13,26].”
From Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Children and Adolescents with Disabilities: A Systematic Review (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
The Introduction discusses online grooming, and the Psychological Distress section says vulnerable young people may interact with unknown users who could harm them. Neither passage identifies perpetrators by their relationship to victims or says that groomers and cyber-bullies were people met online. Searches for the listed relationships and perpetrator terms found no passage establishing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA diverse range of victim ages is evident in the context of OCSEA, all under the age of 18, typically commencing as early as 6-7 years old and extending through to early adolescence to mid-adolescence.
“A diverse range of victim ages is evident in the context of OCSEA, all of which are under the age of 18 [24], typically commencing as early as 6-7 years old and extending through to early adolescence to mid-adolescence [23].”
From Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Children and Adolescents with Disabilities: A Systematic Review (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
The Participants section reports a survey of 11–17-year-olds, but does not identify them as OCSEA victims or establish an age range for such victims. Searches for ages 6–7 and for OCSEA victim ages found no passage addressing the claimed range. The citing sentence also attaches separate citations to its under-18 and 6–7-to-adolescence statements, without identifying which number refers to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredVictims with Williams Syndrome faced circumstances involving receiving gifts.
“Victims with Williams Syndrome [17], on the other hand, faced circumstances involving receiving gifts [23].”
From Online Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of Children and Adolescents with Disabilities: A Systematic Review (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
The Participants section describes broad vulnerability categories, but does not identify participants with Williams syndrome. The Online Risks section describes potentially harmful encounters without mentioning receiving gifts; searches for “receiving gifts,” “gift,” and “Williams Syndrome” found no passage supporting the cited claim. The citing sentence places this citation after the gifts claim, which this copy does not address. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
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- Authors
- El-Asam, A., Lane, R., & Katz, A.
- Affiliations
- Kingston University London (GB)
- King's College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- El-Asam, Aiman
- ORCID
- Lane, Rebecca
- Venue
- Frontiers in Education
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2022-08-10
- Volume
- 7
- ISSN
- 2504-284X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4290989978
- Cited by
- 20
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 2
- FWCI
- 6.11
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Education (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Research Repository (Kingston University London) (acceptedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Kingston University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Keywords
- online risks, psychological distress, vulnerable children and adolescents, mediation, moderated mediation, children in care, physical disability, special educational needs, children's services
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