A review of young people's vulnerabilities to online grooming

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Vulnerabilities to online grooming are situated within the Ecological Model, which comprises individual, family, community, and cultural risk factors.

“Vulnerabilities to carry out these types of behavior and be more exposed to the risk of online grooming, are set within the context of the Ecological Model of child protection, consisting of: individual, family, community, and cultural risk factors.”

May combine two claims.

Poverty does not inevitably lead to maltreatment, but young people from low socioeconomic groups are more susceptible to social problems of all kinds, including offline sexual abuse; however, a meta-analysis concluded there appears to be little or no relationship between child sex abuse and social class or victim family poverty.

“However, this view has been challenged by a meta-analysis of child sex abuse research (Pereda et al., 2009), which concluded that there appears to be little or no relationship between child sex abuse and social class or victim family poverty.”

• cites Bagley & Mallick, 2000Not checked yet

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• cites Pereda et al., 2009Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

No single risk factor is the principal catalyst for abuse; instead, a complex interplay of multiple risk factors and the absence of protective factors decrease a young person's resilience and make them vulnerable to abuse.

“Extensive research has identified no single risk factor as the principal catalyst for abuse; rather, data suggest that a complex interplay of multiple risk factors and the absence of protective factors decrease a young person's resilience, making them vulnerable to abuse (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998).”

• cites Masten & Coatsworth, 1998Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Risk factors co-occur and accumulate, and young people typically experience multiple and recurring risks rather than a single incident.

“Risk factors co-occur (Masten & Powell, 2003) and, in reality, young people will experience multiple and recurring risks rather than a single incident (Sameroff, Gutman, & Peck, 2003); this accumulation of risk is critical (Rolf, 1999).”

• cites Masten & Powell, 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Sameroff et al., 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Rolf, 1999Not checked yet

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May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Young people who are alienated by and in conflict with parents or have family difficulties are vulnerable to online sexual approaches or grooming online, and those who live with a single parent or as part of a reconstituted family are at greater risk.

“Much like offline abuse, young people who live with a single parent or as part of a reconstituted family are also at greater risk (Gallagher, 2007).”

• cites Mitchell et al., 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Gallagher, 2007Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Risk factors identified in cross-sectional studies reflect vulnerabilities that precede grooming rather than consequences of it.

May combine two claims.

There is an association between disability and vulnerability to child sexual abuse offline, and disabled young people are at higher risk online, most notably regarding risks associated with meeting online contacts in the real world.

“Livingstone et al. (2011b) reported that these disabled young people are at higher risk online, most notably regarding risks associated with meeting online contacts in the real world.”

• cites Brunnberg et al., 2012Not checked yet

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• cites Livingstone et al., 2011bNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Young people with disabilities are exposed to the risk of online grooming but may be less able to recognize or cope with it.

“And like other young people, they are exposed to the risk of online grooming but may be less able to recognize or cope with it.”

May combine two claims.

The grooming process is likely to be emotionally arousing for young people because it often evokes feelings of love, which could explain why some young people make poor decisions by continuing to engage with the offender.

“In the context of online behavior, the grooming process is likely to be emotionally arousing for young people because it often evokes feelings of love and thus the findings from Van Duijenvoorde et al.'s (2010) research could offer contributions as to why some young people make poor decisions by continuing to engage with the offender during grooming.”

• cites Van Duijenvoorde et al., 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Boys use the internet slightly more than girls, but the gender difference in the likelihood of being approached sexually online is significant.

“Boys use the internet slightly more than girls, (Livingstone, Haddon, Görzig, & Olafsson 2011); but the gender difference in the likelihood of being approached sexually online is significant.”

• cites Livingstone et al., 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Child abuse is influenced by forces within the individual, family, community, and culture.

“when child abuse occurs, it is affected by forces within the individual, the family, the community, and the culture within which the individual lives (Belsky, 1980)”

• cites Belsky, 1980Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Patterns of vulnerability concerning living environment, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and personality are tentative but often interconnected.

“Patterns of vulnerability regarding living environment, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and personality are tentative, but are often interconnected.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The features that make the vulnerable group vulnerable are not yet understood.

“however the features that make this group vulnerable are not yet understood and thus an exploration of these vulnerabilities is necessary.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Ecological Model is the most commonly applied framework in the child protection arena.

“In the child protection arena, Hamilton-Giachritsis, Peixoto, and Melo (2011) have suggested that The Ecological Model is the most commonly applied”

• cites Hamilton-Giachritsis et al., 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Child abuse is a dynamic process, and the likelihood of risk involves complex interplay between the child, their relationships, community, and culture.

“No child exists in isolation; therefore, child abuse is a dynamic process and the likelihood of risk of abuse involves the complex interplay between a child, their relationship with others, their community and culture (Hamilton-Giachritsis et al., 2011).”

• cites Hamilton-Giachritsis et al., 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A young person's resilience is a key indicator of how vulnerable they are likely to be toward abuse.

“A young person's resilience is a key indicator of how vulnerable they are likely to be toward abuse.”

May combine two claims.

Parental involvement and monitoring of a young person's internet use appears to be a protective factor, as young people with parents who oversee their internet use experience fewer negative online events, and those aware their parents were monitoring their internet use engaged less in sexual conversations and activities online.

“A parent's involvement and monitoring of the young person's internet use of appears to be a protective factor as young people with parents who oversee their internet use, experience fewer negative online events than other young people (Soo & Bodanovskaya, 2012).”

• Also stated in: § 3.1 Family · plain

  “De Graaf and Vanwesenbeeck (2006) highlight that young people who were aware their parents were monitoring their internet use engaged less in sexual conversations and activities online than those whose parents did not monitor use.”

• cites Soo & Bodanovskaya, 2012Not checked yet

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• cites De Graaf & Vanwesenbeeck, 2006Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Risk factors identified in cross-sectional studies reflect vulnerabilities that precede grooming rather than consequences of it.

May combine two claims.

Young people from higher socioeconomic backgrounds and high income families are more likely to have home internet access and internet-enabled devices, and across Europe they have a more diverse range of contacts and are more likely to receive online sexual solicitations.

“In contrast, across Europe, Livingstone et al. (2011) reported that young people of higher socioeconomic status have a more diverse range of contacts including people unknown to them in the real world and are more likely to receive online sexual solicitations.”

• cites Livingstone et al., 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Livingstone et al., 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A review of 25 studies found fairly strong evidence of a relationship between neighborhood characteristics and the concentration of abuse.

“In a review of 25 studies looking at neighborhoods and offline child maltreatment, Coulton, Crampton, Irwin, Spilsbury, and Korbin (2009) found that there is fairly strong evidence of a relationship between neighborhood characteristics and the concentration of abuse.”

• cites Coulton, Crampton, Irwin, Spilsbury, and Korbin, 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Child sexual abuse is a global problem.

“Child sexual abuse is a global problem (Bourke & Hernandez, 2009), and rates seem fairly comparable across countries, cultures and ethnicities; with just minor variations and little evidence that certain ethnicities may be a risk factor toward victimization (Bebbington, et al., 2011;Elliott & Urquiza, 2006;Finkelhor, 1994;Kenny & McEachern, 2000;Putnam, 2003;Sedlak et al., 2010).”

• cites Bourke & Hernandez, 2009Not checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

One reason young people choose to speak to strangers online is boredom.

“Peter, Valkenburg, and Schouten (2006) found that one of the reasons young people chose to speak to strangers online was boredom.”

• cites Peter, Valkenburg, and Schouten, 2006Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Maltreated children had higher levels of Neuroticism, which led to negative affects and unbalanced emotional regulation.

“As part of a study which compared maltreated and non-maltreated children, Rogosch and Cicchetti (2004) found that the higher levels of Neuroticism associated with maltreated children, led to negative affects and unbalanced emotional regulation.”

• cites Rogosch and Cicchetti, 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

Research on vulnerabilities to online grooming is limited and inconclusive in several areas, including socioeconomic status and online grooming findings.

“In summary, research in this area is limited and inconclusive for both offline and online abuse.”

• Also stated in: § 4.1 Friends · plain

  “In summary, while research is relatively consistent in indicating peer isolation and social difficulties as vulnerabilities towards offline abuse and online grooming, findings surrounding online grooming are not extensive.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The reviewed literature is sufficiently valid and comparable to support the review's synthesis.

May combine two claims.

Research on the relationship between sexual abuse and ethnicity is sparse and findings have been inconclusive.

“Research investigating the relationship between sexual abuse and ethnicity is sparse (McCloskey & Bailey, 2000) and findings have been inconclusive (Douglas & Finkelhor, 2005).”

• cites McCloskey & Bailey, 2000Not checked yet

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• cites Douglas & Finkelhor, 2005Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Pereda et al. found large variations between countries, with child sexual abuse very high in South Africa.

“However, Pereda et al. (2009) found large variations between countries (e.g., child sexual abuse was very high in South Africa).”

• cites Pereda et al., 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The impact of scholastic experiences on vulnerability to online grooming is largely unexplored.

“The impact of scholastic experiences on vulnerability to online grooming is largely unexplored.”

May combine two claims.

A study focused specifically on child sexual abuse found no relationship between poor academic achievement and child sexual abuse; sexually abused young people were as likely to succeed academically as non-abused peers.

“However, a study that looked specifically at child sexual abuse (rather than all types of maltreatment) found no relationship between poor academic achievement and child sexual abuse; young people who had been sexually abused were just as likely to succeed academically as those who were not abused (Buckle, Lancaster, Powell, & Higgins, 2005).”

• cites Buckle, Lancaster, Powell, & Higgins, 2005Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The educational effects of child abuse should be interpreted within the broader psychosocial context resulting from the abuse, including socioeconomic, family, and individual factors.

“However, Boden et al. (2007) warn that the effects of child abuse on education should be viewed in the wider psychosocial context that the child is exposed to as a result of the abuse; this may include socioeconomic factors, the family, and individual components.”

• cites Boden et al., 2007Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Coping develops throughout the lifespan, so a young person's coping may differ from how they cope as an adult.

“This research recognizes that coping develops throughout the life span of an individual; therefore, a young person's coping may well be different to how they are as an adult.”

• cites O'Leary & Gould, 2010Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Offline child sexual abuse has been linked with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and avoidant coping styles.

“Research has linked offline child sexual abuse with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (Canton-Cortes & Canton, 2010) and avoidant coping styles (Fortier et al., 2009).”

• cites Canton-Cortes & Canton, 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Fortier et al., 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Young people who live in environments with less overt stimulation, potentially rural areas, may be more likely to respond to groomers online.

“Therefore, it could be inferred that young people who live in environments with less overt stimulation (potentially rural areas) may be more likely to respond to groomers online.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Black young people were more likely to receive requests for sexual photos online.

“Contrastingly, Mitchell et al. (2007) reported that black young people were more likely to receive requests for sexual photos online.”

• cites Mitchell et al., 2007Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Mobile phone access is higher among children from urban areas, while social networking access is higher among children from rural areas.

“Ofcom (2008) reported that mobile phone access is higher among children from urban areas and social networking access is higher among children from rural areas.”

• cites Ofcom, 2008Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Suppression and denial strategies were considered to have negative mental health consequences, while reframing strategies were likely to produce more positive outcomes.

“The first strategies were considered to have negative consequences for mental health and the second were likely to induce more positive outcomes (O' Leary & Gould, 2010).”

• cites O' Leary & Gould, 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The association between academic achievement and child abuse offline and online is ambiguous and may be indirect because many other factors may contribute to the relationship.

“This is because the association between academic achievement and child abuse offline and online is ambiguous and may be indirect (Boden et al., 2007) in that many other factors may contribute to the relationship between the two.”

• cites Boden et al., 2007Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Male survivors of child sexual abuse employed two types of coping mechanism: strategies linked to suppression and denial, and strategies associated with reframing.

“During interviews with male survivors of child sexual abuse, O'Leary and Gould (2010) found that participants employed two types of coping mechanism; first strategies that are linked to suppression and denial, second strategies associated with reframing.”

• cites O'Leary and Gould, 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Rates of child sexual abuse appear fairly comparable across countries, cultures, and ethnicities, with only minor variations and little evidence that certain ethnicities are a risk factor for victimization.

“Child sexual abuse is a global problem (Bourke & Hernandez, 2009), and rates seem fairly comparable across countries, cultures and ethnicities; with just minor variations and little evidence that certain ethnicities may be a risk factor toward victimization (Bebbington, et al., 2011;Elliott & Urquiza, 2006;Finkelhor, 1994;Kenny & McEachern, 2000;Putnam, 2003;Sedlak et al., 2010).”

• cites Bebbington, et al., 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Elliott & Urquiza, 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Finkelhor, 1994Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The prevalence of child abuse in different neighborhoods reflects not only the people who make up the neighborhood but also the area itself.

“It has been argued that the prevalence of child abuse in different neighborhoods is not only a reflection of the people who make up the neighborhood, but also a reflection on the area itself (Korbin, 2003).”

• cites Korbin, 2003Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Different individuals have different coping styles, and these are likely related to different temperaments.

“It is recognized that different individuals have different coping styles and these are likely to be related to different temperaments (Gumbiner, 2003).”

• cites Gumbiner, 2003Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

School is typically the first major setting outside the family where children encounter unfamiliar peers and adults.

“School is usually the first considerable extra-familial environment to which children are exposed and they find themselves surrounded by unfamiliar peers and adults (Cicchetti & Toth, 2005).”

• cites Cicchetti & Toth, 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Quayle and Jones results may be relevant to the UK only because the image database was largely compiled during UK seizures.

“The images were taken from a database largely compiled during seizures involving UK operations and therefore results could be relevant to the UK only.”

May combine two claims.

Research has not yet confirmed the process explaining neighborhood maltreatment patterns or whether living environment is directly or indirectly related to offline child abuse.

“Overall, research has yet to confirm the process that explains neighborhood maltreatment patterns and ascertain whether the role of living environment is directly or indirectly related to offline child abuse (Coulton et al., 2009;Guterman, Lee, Taylor, & Rathouz, 2009).”

• cites Coulton et al., 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Guterman, Lee, Taylor, & Rathouz, 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Young people appear least satisfied with school compared with other areas of life.

“Research indicates that the area of life that young people appear to be least satisfied with is school (Antaramian et al., 2008;Huebner, Laughlin, Ash, & Gilman, 1998).”

• cites Antaramian et al., 2008Not checked yet

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• cites Huebner, Laughlin, Ash, & Gilman, 1998Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In an analysis of victims within child sexual abuse images, the likelihood that the victim was white was very high, at approximately 10 to 1.

“During an analysis of victims within child sexual abuse images, Quayle and Jones (2011) found that the likelihood of the victim being white was very high, at approximately 10 to 1.”

• cites Quayle and Jones, 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Offender networks are global and the images cannot be categorized by country, so they may indicate global trends.

“However, offender networks are global and the images cannot, therefore, be categorized by country and may well indicate global trends.”

May combine two claims.

Satisfaction with school is positively related to attachment to friends and parents, which are protective factors.

“Satisfaction with school is positively related to attachment to friends and parents (which are protective factors), implying that strong relationships are likely to offer psychological support that can be applied to different settings, such as school (Elmore & Huebner, 2010).”

• cites Elmore & Huebner, 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Causes of abuse are likely ecologically nested within one another and vulnerabilities are interrelated.

“It is important to emphasize that causes of abuse are likely to be ecologically nested within one another and these vulnerabilities will be interrelated (Belsky, 1980).”

• cites Belsky, 1980Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The relationship between coping and Agreeableness appears sparse.

“Finally, the relationship between coping and Agreeableness appears sparse (Watson & Hubbard, 1996).”

• cites Watson & Hubbard, 1996Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Nine risky behaviors online make young people susceptible to online victimization, and using a combination of several risky behaviors was the strongest indicator of abuse.

“Ybarra, Mitchell, Finkelhor, and Wolak (2007) identified nine risky behaviors online that make young people susceptible to online victimization and noted that using a combination of several risky behaviors was the strongest indicator of abuse.”

• cites Ybarra, Mitchell, Finkelhor, and Wolak, 2007Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Existing research suggests that young people are particularly vulnerable to online grooming if they are female, questioning their sexuality, in adolescence, or have a disability.

“Within individual vulnerabilities, existing research suggests that young people are particularly vulnerable to online grooming if they are female, questioning their sexuality (male or female), in adolescence, or have a disability.”

May combine two claims.

Personality vulnerabilities have been explored to a very limited extent, and the literature focuses on physical abuse and personality disorders of victims rather than their personality traits.

“Personality vulnerabilities have been explored by research to a very limited extent.The literature focuses on physical abuse and personality disorders of victims of sexual abuse, rather than their personality traits.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

No difference was found between the risk factors that make a young person vulnerable to offline sexual abuse and those that make them vulnerable to online sexual abuse.

“De Graaf and Vanwesenbeeck (2006) found no difference between the risk factors that make a young person vulnerable to offline sexual abuse and those which make them vulnerable to online sexual abuse.”

• cites De Graaf and Vanwesenbeeck, 2006Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Although some groups who are vulnerable offline will also be vulnerable online, this is not always the case.

“Although some groups who are vulnerable offline will also be vulnerable online, this is not always the case (UKCCIS, 2012).”

• cites UKCCIS, 2012Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Low self-esteem and mental health problems are reported to increase a young person's vulnerability to online grooming, similar to offline sexual abuse.

“Similar to offline sexual abuse, interpersonal features, such as low self esteem and mental health problems, are reported to increase a young person's vulnerability toward online grooming.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Extraversion shows a relationship with social support seeking, positive reappraisal, and problem-focused coping.

“however, Extraversion shows a relationship with social support seeking, positive reappraisal, and problem-focused coping (Watson & Hubbard, 1996).”

• cites Watson & Hubbard, 1996Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Protective factors against online grooming within the parent and family dimension include parental monitoring of internet use, the young person's awareness of this monitoring, and supportive parent relationships.

“Research has identified several protective factors against online grooming within the parent and family dimension which include parental monitoring of the young person's internet use, the young person's awareness of this, and supportive parent relationships.”

May combine two claims.

Maltreated children were less likely to engage in educational hobbies and imaginative thinking, traits associated with low Openness, which may hinder adaptation following abuse.

“Furthermore, the maltreated group were less likely to engage in educational hobbies and imaginative thinking, which are traits associated with low Openness and may potentially hinder adaptation following abuse.”

• cites Rogosch and Cicchetti, 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Offenders may have no strategy in victim selection and may attempt to groom all young people available, but it is likely that only the vulnerable respond while the resilient remain unaffected.

“Having said this, offenders may well have no strategy in victim selection and attempt to groom all young people available to them; however it is likely that only the vulnerable respond, while the resilient remain unaffected.”

May combine two claims.

Offenders approach fake accounts online and attempt to groom the individual despite no vulnerabilities being apparent from the account.

“Offenders approach these fake accounts online (which they believe to be created by a young person) and attempt to groom the individual, despite the fact that no vulnerabilities are apparent from the account.”

• cites CEOP, 2008Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Being shy offline makes little difference online because young people can behave in ways that do not fit their natural characteristics and often feel disinhibited by the screen.

“For example, being shy offline makes little difference online (Livingstone & Helsper, 2007) as young people can behave in ways that do not necessarily fit with their natural characteristics and individuals often feel disinhibited by the screen in front of them (Suler, 2004).”

• cites Livingstone & Helsper, 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Suler, 2004 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

There appear to be two groups of vulnerable young people: those vulnerable offline and online, and those who show no indication of being vulnerable offline but seem vulnerable online.

“There appears to be two groups of vulnerable young people, those who are vulnerable offline and online and those who give no indication of being vulnerable offline, but seem to be vulnerable online (UKCCIS, 2012).”

• cites UKCCIS, 2012Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The lack of difference between offline and online risk factors may be attributable to the very limited research comparing these dimensions.

“However the authors acknowledge that this may be attributable to the very limited research comparing these dimensions.”

May combine two claims.

Past victimization is a risk factor for future victimization, particularly when the person has previously been a victim of child sexual abuse.

“Much research suggests that past victimization is a risk factor for future victimization (Finkelhor, Ormrod, & Turner, 2007;Finkelhor, Ormrod & Turner, 2007b;Finkelhor, Ormrod, Turner & Holt, 2009;Hamilton & Browne, 1999) particularly when the person has previously been a victim of child sexual abuse (Reese-Weber & Smith, 2011;Swanston et al., 2002).”

• cites Finkelhor, Ormrod, & Turner, 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Hamilton & Browne, 1999Not checked yet

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• cites Reese-Weber & Smith, 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Openness may be far less related to coping, though some research associates it with flexible, imaginative, and intellectually curious coping mechanisms.

“Although research indicates that Openness may be far less related to coping, some research indicates an association with flexible, imaginative and intellectually curious coping mechanisms (Watson & Hubbard, 1996).”

• cites Watson & Hubbard, 1996Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Parent and family vulnerabilities towards online victimization have begun to be recognized, and findings appear consistent with vulnerabilities towards sexual abuse offline.

“Parent and family vulnerabilities towards online victimization have begun to be recognized, and findings appear consistent with vulnerabilities towards sexual abuse offline.”

May combine two claims.

The individual vulnerability pattern is largely consistent with literature on offline sexual abuse, although adolescents appear to be more consistently the high-risk group for online grooming than for offline abuse.

“This finding is largely consistent with literature surrounding offline sexual abuse; although adolescents appear to be more consistently the high risk group regarding grooming online than they do for offline abuse.”

May combine two claims.

Various factors contribute to a young person becoming vulnerable online, and not all young people are vulnerable in the same way.

“Consequentially, there are various factors that contribute to a young person becoming vulnerable online and not all young people are vulnerable in the same way (Livingstone et al., 2011).”

• cites Livingstone et al., 2011Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Research on personality vulnerabilities is currently inconclusive and there is a need for further study.

“The research in this area is currently inconclusive and there is a need for further study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The relationship between personality traits and coping styles is complex and likely affected by various other factors.

“While some personality traits undoubtedly influence coping styles, the relationship is complex and likely to be affected by various other factors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Conscientiousness is linked to problem-focused and active coping.

“whereas Conscientiousness is reported to be linked to problem-focused and active coping (Shewchuk et al., 1999;Watson & Hubbard, 1996).”

• cites Shewchuk et al., 1999Not checked yet

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• cites Watson & Hubbard, 1996Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Any young person could potentially be vulnerable online simply by inhabiting a particular space, and the issue is one of accessibility.

“This could imply that any young person could potentially be vulnerable online, simply by inhabiting a particular space and the issue is one of accessibility.”

May combine two claims.

Lower life satisfaction appeared to increase the likelihood of risky communication online, suggesting that young people could use the online environment to compensate for offline difficulties.

“Livingstone and Helsper (2007) found that lower life satisfaction appeared to increase the likelihood of risky communication online, suggesting that young people could use the online environment to compensate for offline difficulties in some way (Livingstone & Helsper, 2007).”

• cites Livingstone and Helsper, 2007Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

While girls communicate more online, sheer access does not automatically put them more at risk; access must interact with vulnerabilities for the risk to increase.

“For example, while girls communicate more online, sheer access does not automatically put them more at risk (Livingstone & Helsper, 2007); this access must interact with vulnerabilities for the risk to increase.”

• cites Livingstone & Helsper, 2007Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Having been abused offline appears to be significantly and independently associated with online sexual solicitations, which are often associated with offline meetings.

“Having been abused offline appears to be significantly and independently associated with online sexual solicitations, which are often in turn associated with meetings offline (Noll et al., 2009).”

• cites Noll et al., 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Research on the coping strategies adopted by victims of online grooming is considerably less developed.

“Research surrounding the coping strategies adopted by victims of online grooming is considerably less developed.”

May combine two claims.

Individual risk factors in isolation are unlikely to result in online grooming; each risk factor reduces resilience, which increases the likelihood of responding to a groomer if approached or instigating contact with a potential groomer.

“Individual risk factors in isolation are unlikely to result in online grooming; rather, each risk factor that a young person is subject to reduces the resilience of that individual, which, in turn, increases the likelihood of them responding to a groomer if approached or instigating contact with a potential groomer.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Steps have been taken towards comparing rural and urban areas, suggesting that those in rural areas may be at increased risk, but conclusions remain uncertain.

“Steps have been taken towards comparing rural and urban areas, suggesting that those in rural areas may be at increased risk, but conclusions remain uncertain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Research into sexual offenses involving the internet is at a rudimentary stage and requires further investigation.

“While children's use of the internet continues to grow (Livingstone & Haddon, 2009), research into sexual offenses involving the internet is at a rudimentary stage and requires further investigation (Briggs, Simon, & Simonsen, 2011;Ybarra & Mitchell, 2008).”

• cites Briggs, Simon, & Simonsen, 2011 sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites Ybarra & Mitchell, 2008Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

There is some evidence that those from higher socioeconomic groups are more likely to be approached by groomers due to higher levels of access, but they are also more likely to be resilient and resist grooming.

“However, there is some evidence to suggest that those from higher socioeconomic groups are more likely to be approached by groomers, due to higher levels of access; but they are also more like to be resilient and resist the grooming.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Being within the family home does not mean a young person is not at risk of harm, and parental involvement with a young person's internet use is a key protective factor.

“Simply because a young person is within the family home does not mean they are not at risk of harm and parental involvement with a young person's use of the internet is a key protective factor.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Very little research draws upon UK samples, so potential differences among UK young people should be anticipated.

“Although research is growing in this field, very little research draws upon UK samples; therefore, potential differences among UK young people should be anticipated.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Much research talks about sexual harassment or solicitation, fewer studies use the word grooming, and it may be inaccurate to assume that all instances of online sexual abuse are grooming.

“Much of the research in this area talks about sexual harassment or solicitation, fewer studies use the word 'grooming' and it may be inaccurate to assume that all instances where sexual abuse online takes place are 'grooming' (Soo, 2012).”

• cites Soo, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Some young people are at risk of being vulnerable to online grooming and require protection.

“The internet offers young people extensive opportunities and has many positive uses, however, as this review highlights, some young people are at risk of being vulnerable to online grooming and require protection.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

These factors contribute to aspects of the individual but are by no means the sum of that person.

“These factors contribute to aspects of the individual, but are by no means the sum of that person.”

May combine two claims.

Links between low socioeconomic status and offline child sexual abuse are tentative, while research on socioeconomic status and online grooming is inconclusive.

“While tentative links have been made between low socioeconomic status and offline child sexual abuse, research surrounding socioeconomic status and online grooming is inconclusive.”

May combine two claims.

This measurement issue results in comparison difficulties between papers and tentative conclusions about online grooming.

“This results in comparison difficulties between papers and tentative conclusions about online grooming.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Conclusions from the limited research cannot currently be drawn, so further exploration is required to ascertain any links between nationality or ethnicity and online grooming.

“Conclusions from the limited research cannot currently be drawn; therefore, further exploration is required to ascertain any links between be nationality or ethnicity and online grooming.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

There is a need for research that reports the perspective of young victims.

“and there is a need for research that reports the perspective of the young victims (UKCCIS, 2012).”

• cites UKCCIS, 2012Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The impact of living environment in relation to offline abuse is well researched, but it is considerably under-researched regarding online grooming.

“Additionally, the impact of living environment in relation to offline abuse is well researched, but is considerably under researched regarding online grooming.”