Annual Research Review: Harms experienced by child users of online and mobile technologies: the nature, prevalence and management of sexual and aggressive risks in the digital age
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Aims and scope: The usage of mobile phones and the internet by young people has increased rapidly in the past decade, approaching saturation by middle childhood in developed countries. Besides many benefits, online content, contact or conduct can be associated with risk of harm; most research has examined whether aggressive or sexual harms result from this. We examine the nature and prevalence of such risks, and evaluate the evidence regarding the factors that increase or protect against harm resulting from such risks, so as to inform the academic and practitioner knowledge base. We also identify the conceptual and methodological challenges encountered in this relatively new body of research, and highlight the pressing research gaps. Methods: Given the pace of change in the market for communication technologies, we review research published since 2008. Following a thorough bibliographic search of literature from the key disciplines (psychology, sociology, education, media studies and computing sciences), the review concentrates on recent, high quality empirical studies, contextualizing these within an overview of the field. Findings: Risks of cyberbullying, contact with strangers, sexual messaging (‘sexting’) and pornography generally affect fewer than one in five adolescents. Prevalence estimates vary according to definition and measurement, but do not appear to be rising substantially with increasing access to mobile and online technologies, possibly because these technologies pose no additional risk to offline behaviour, or because any risks are offset by a commensurate growth in safety awareness and initiatives. While not all online risks result in self‐reported harm, a range of adverse emotional and psychosocial consequences is revealed by longitudinal studies. Useful for identifying which children are more vulnerable than others, evidence reveals several risk factors: personality factors (sensation‐seeking, low self‐esteem, psychological difficulties), social factors (lack of parental support, peer norms) and digital factors (online practices, digital skills, specific online sites). Conclusions: Mobile and online risks are increasingly intertwined with pre‐existing (offline) risks in children's lives. Research gaps, as well as implications for practitioners, are identified. The challenge is now to examine the relations among different risks, and to build on the risk and protective factors identified to design effective interventions.
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Teens most often encounter unwanted sexual solicitations from seemingly innocuous individuals they meet online or already know in person, rather than from overtly suspicious strangers.
“when in reality, teens most often encounter unwanted sexual solicitations from seemingly innocuous individuals they meet online [54, 92] or already know in person [13, 45, 75].”
From From Vulnerable to Resilient: Examining Parent and Teen Perceptions on How to Respond to Unwanted Cybergrooming Advances (2026) · cites this paper as [54]
In “Sexual risks: pornography, stranger danger, sexting” (page unavailable), the review says many unwanted sexual encounters involve known adults and suggests abuse by someone known offline is more common than grooming by an online stranger. It does not establish that teens most often receive unwanted online sexual solicitations from seemingly innocuous contacts, or give a perpetrator breakdown for those solicitations. (LLM, conf=0.82)
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- Authors
- Livingstone, S., & Smith, P. K.
- Affiliations
- London School of Economics and Political Science (GB)
- Goldsmiths University of London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Livingstone, Sonia
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2014-01-20
- Volume
- 55
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 635-654
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- OpenAlex
- W2115300352
- Cited by
- 590
- References
- 200
- Citations by year
- 2026: 60 · 2025: 76 · 2024: 72 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 55 · 2019: 47 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 34 · 2015: 40 · 2014: 9
- FWCI
- 12.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Goldsmiths (University of London) (acceptedVersion)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (submittedVersion)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Theses Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- EC (SIP-KEP-321803)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Keywords
- online risks to children, cyberbullying, sexting, online pornography, adolescent sexual behavior, aggression, risk factors, protective factors, parental support, peer norms, sensation seeking, self-esteem, digital skills, psychosocial consequences, mobile technology use
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aggression, Child, Child Abuse, Sexual, Child, Preschool, Erotica, Female, Humans, Male, Risk, Risk Factors, Prevalence, Internet, Cell Phone, Bullying
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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