Changes in Men’s Salivary Testosterone and Cortisol Levels, and in Sexual Desire after Smelling Female Axillary and Vulvar Scents
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Several studies have shown that a woman's vaginal or axillary odors convey information on her attractivity. Yet, whether such scents induce psychoneuroendocrinological changes in perceivers is still controversial. We studied if smelling axillary and vulvar odors collected in the periovulatory and late luteal phases of young women modify salivary testosterone and cortisol levels, as well as sexual desire in men. Forty-five women and 115 men, all of them college students and unacquainted with each other, participated in the study. Female odors were collected on pads affixed to the axilla and on panty protectors both worn the entire night before experiments. Men provided five saliva samples, a basal one before the smelling procedure, and four more 15, 30, 60, and 75 min after exposure to odors. Immediately after smelling the odor source, men answered a questionnaire rating hedonic qualities of scents, and after providing the last saliva sample they answered questionnaire on sexual desire. We found that periovulatory axillary and vulvar odors increased testosterone and cortisol levels, with vulvar scents producing a more prolonged effect. Luteal axilla odors decreased testosterone and cortisol levels, while luteal vulva odors increased cortisol. Periovulatory axilla and vulva scents accounted for a general increase of interest in sex. These odors were also rated as more pleasant and familiar, while luteal vulvar odors were perceived as intense and unpleasant.
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The observed neural pattern in response to ovulation body odor may indicate that the study participants experienced greater attraction toward the depicted women and showed neural signs of sexual arousal.
“Coupled with the fact that exposure to the smell of an ovulating woman can result in sexual desire ( Cerda-Molina et al., 2013 ), the observed neural pattern in response to ovulation body odor may indicate that our study participants experienced greater attraction toward the depicted women and showed neural signs of (sexual) arousal.”
From Male brain processing of the body odor of ovulating women compared to that of pregnant women (2021) · cites this paper as Cerda-Molina et al., 2013
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Sex and the housing: Effects on behavior, cortisol levels and weight in zebrafish
Reolon, G. K., de Melo, G. M., da Rosa, J. G. S., et al. (2017) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2017.08.006 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Human Olfaction: A Typical Yet Special Mammalian Olfactory System
Weiss, T., Secundo, L., & Sobel, N. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-4-431-54376-3_9 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Lobmaier, J. S., Fischbacher, U., Wirthmüller, U., & Knoch, D. (2018) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.1520 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Intrinsic links among sex, emotion, and reproduction
Yang, L. Y., Comninos, A. N., & Dhillo, W. S. (2018) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s00018-018-2802-3 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“Furthermore, both vasopressin [149] and cortisol levels [150] are shown to rise during sexual arousal in human males which may be a driver for the stress response required by males to compete for the opportunity to mate with a female.”
BackgroundHaselton, M. G., & Gildersleeve, K. A. (2015) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.08.020 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Sexual Chemosignals: Evidence that Men Process Olfactory Signals of Women’s Sexual Arousal
Wisman, A., & Shrira, I. (2020) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-019-01588-8 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“non-ovulating) women is evaluated by men as more attractive and pleasant (Singh & Bronstad, 2001; Tarín & Gómez-Piquer, 2002), increases men’s testosterone and cortisol levels (Cerda-Molina, HernándezLópez, Claudio, Chavira-Ramírez, & Mondragón-Ceballos, 2013; Miller & Maner, 2009), increases the accessibility of sexu…”
BackgroundShackelford, T. K., Goetz, A. T., LaMunyon, C. W., Pham, M. N., & Pound, N. (2015) · doi:10.1002/9781119125563.evpsych115 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Individual Variation in Body Odor
Havlı́ček, J., Fialová, J., & Roberts, S. C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-26932-0_50 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“Similar increases in testosterone and cortisol are invoked by vulvar odour collected in the women’s fertile phase (Cerda-Molina et al. 2013).”
BackgroundKamrava, S. K., Tavakol, Z., Talebi, A., et al. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-99627-9 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Human Sperm Competition: A Comparative Evolutionary Analysis
Pham, M. N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2014) · Animal Behavior and Cognition · doi:10.12966/abc.08.13.2014 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Additionally, Cerda-Molina et al. (2013) found that men who smell vaginal odors produced at high-fertility (relative to low-fertility) also experience a surge in testosterone and report greater copulatory interest.”
BackgroundMen's preferences for women's body odours are not associated with human leucocyte antigen
Probst, F., Fischbacher, U., Lobmaier, J. S., Wirthmüller, U., & Knoch, D. (2017) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.1830 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“An increasing number of studies report that women’s body odour is rated as more attractive if gathered near ovulation compared with odour that was collected in other cycle phases [10–13].”
Olfactory Sensitivity Is Related to Erectile Function in Adult Males
Deng, H.-Y., Feng, J., Zhou, W., Kong, W., Ma, G., Hu, T., Luo, S., Xi, Y., Zhang, Y., & Yang, Q.-T. (2020) · Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology · doi:10.3389/fcell.2020.00093 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Exogeneous testosterone increases sexual impulsivity in heterosexual men
Wu, Y., Ou, J., Wang, X., Zilioli, S., Tobler, P. N., & Li, Y. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105914 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Hoffmann, H. (2019) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.01.012 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Sorokowska, A., Oleszkiewicz, A., & Sorokowski, P. (2018) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-018-1156-0 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Mei, M., Grillot, R. L., Abbey, C. K., Thompson, M. E., & Roney, J. R. (2022) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2022.0026 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“It is possible that cues of ovulatory timing in women’s odours affect other outcomes, such as men’s reactive hormone responses ([35,36]; cf.”
BackgroundOren, C., & Shamay‐Tsoory, S. (2018) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.10.028 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Do Men and Women Perform Oral Sex as Mate Retention Behavior?
Sela, Y., Pham, M. N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2014) · Evolutionary psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-09384-0_4 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Williams, M. N., & Jacobson, A. (2016) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/1474704916643328 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Pham, M. N., Jeffery, A. J., Sela, Y., et al. (2016) · Evolutionary Psychological Science · doi:10.1007/s40806-016-0057-5 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“a testosterone surge and report greater sexual interest (Doty et al. 1975; Cerda-Molina et al. 2013).”
BackgroundWomen's Sexual Interests Across the Ovulatory Cycle
Gangestad, S. W., Thornhill, R., & Garver‐Apgar, C. E. (2015) · doi:10.1002/9781119125563.evpsych114 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Testosterone’s role in modulating human behaviors relevant to mating and parenting
Luberti, F. R., & Carré, J. M. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2023.101112 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Smell throughout the life course
Poirier, A. C., & Melin, A. D. (2024) · Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews · doi:10.1002/evan.22030 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Blomkvist, A., Izzo, G., Vaccaro, M. G., Vignera, S. L., Brunetti, A., Aversa, A., & Liuzza, M. T. (2021) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-021-02109-2 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Sperm Competition and the Evolution of Human Sexuality
Pham, M. N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2014) · Evolutionary psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-09384-0_12 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Cerda-Molina et al. (2013) found that men report greater sexual arousal and copulatory interest when smelling vaginal fluids produced at high-fertility relative to low-fertility, supporting both the fertility-detection function and the sexual arousal function of cunnilingus.”
BackgroundChoosing Fighting Competitors Among Men: Testosterone, Personality, and Motivations
Borráz-León, J. I., Cerda‐Molina, A. L., Rantala, M. J., & Mayagoitia-Novales, L. (2018) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/1474704918757243 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationLobmaier, J. S., Fischbacher, U., Probst, F., et al. (2018) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.0566 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Women’s body odour during the ovulatory phase modulates testosterone and cortisol levels in men
Tarumi, W., & Shinohara, K. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0230838 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“The balance between these two hormones seems to regulate the expression of sexual desire and sexual activities [9, 42].”
BackgroundResultOlfactory Exposure to β-Caryophyllene Increases Testosterone Levels in Women’s Saliva
Tarumi, W., & Shinohara, K. (2020) · Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.esxm.2020.06.001 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“There is a previous study that provides useful information in testing this issue: Cerda-Molina et al reported that the increase in salivary testosterone levels in men who smelled the external genitalia of women during the ovulatory period persisted for more than 60 minutes.(34) Therefore, it is possible that the effec…”
ResultOral Sex, Semen Displacement, and Sexual Arousal: Testing the Ejaculate Adjustment Hypothesis
Pham, M. N., Shackelford, T. K., Welling, L. L. M., Ehrke, A. D., Sela, Y., & Goetz, A. T. (2013) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1177/147470491301100515 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Oren, C., & Shamay‐Tsoory, S. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-11356-0 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Ostrander, G. M., Pipitone, R. N., & Shoup-Knox, M. L. (2018) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.12.008 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Both men and women detect differences associated with fertility such as heightened facial (Bobst and Lobmaier, 2012), vocal (Karthikeyan and Locke, 2015; Pipitone and Gallup, 2008; Shoup-Knox and Pipitone, 2015), and body odor attractiveness (Cerda-Molina et al., 2013; Miller and Maner, 2010; Singh and Bronstad, 2001).”
Male brain processing of the body odor of ovulating women compared to that of pregnant women
Habel, U., Regenbogen, C., Kammann, C., Stickel, S., & Chechko, N. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117733 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Borráz-León, J. I., Cerda‐Molina, A. L., & Mayagoitia-Novales, L. (2017) · Behaviour · doi:10.1163/1568539x-00003437 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationWomen's evaluations of other women's natural body odor depend on target's fertility status
Gildersleeve, K. A., Fales, M. R., & Haselton, M. G. (2016) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2016.08.003 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Women’s Body Odor during Ovulation Improves Social Perception in Single Men
Oren, C., & Shamay‐Tsoory, S. (2019) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/bjz053 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Synthetic Copulin Does Not Affect Men’s Sexual Behavior
Williams, M. N., & Apicella, C. L. (2017) · Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology · doi:10.1007/s40750-017-0083-y · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…al. 1975; Singh and Bronstad 2001) and 2) odor samples taken from women at high conception risk increase men’s testosterone (Jütte and Grammer 1997; Miller and Maner 2010, 2011), sexual arousal (Miller and Maner 2010, 2011) and risk-taking (Miller and Maner 2011; also see Cerda-Molina et al. 2013).”
BackgroundAssociations Between Sexual Desire and Within-Individual Testosterone and Cortisol in Men and Women
Rosenfield, K. A., Self, H., Shirazi, T. N., Cardenes, R., Carré, J. M., Ortiz, T. L., Khytam Dawood, B., & Puts, D. A. (2022) · Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology · doi:10.1007/s40750-022-00184-w · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“For example, men experienced simultaneous increases in cortisol, testosterone, and interest in sex compared to baseline following experimental exposure to women’s axillary and vulvar odors (Cerda-Molina et al., 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialTestosterone rapidly increases men’s emotion-based dehumanization of a conservatively dressed woman
Luberti, F. R., Proietti, V. M., Geniole, S. N., Bird, B. M., Ortiz, T. L., Watson, N. V., Cearns, J., Goldfarb, B., & Carré, J. M. (2024) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2024.107173 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Rigaill, L., Suda‐Hashimoto, N., Ducroix, L., Mouri, K., Furuichi, T., & Garcia, C. (2017) · International Journal of Primatology · doi:10.1007/s10764-017-9980-y · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…2003; humans: Michael et al. 1974) that elicit male behavioral (stump-tailed macaques: Cerda-Molina et al. 2006b; rhesus macaques: Michael and Keverne 1970; Michael and Zumpe 1982) and endocrinological responses (stump-tailed macaques: Cerda-Molina et al. 2006a; humans: Cerda-Molina et al. 2013).”
Male Testosterone Does Not Adapt to the Partner's Menstrual Cycle
Ström, J. O., Ingberg, E., Slezak, J. K., et al. (2018) · The Journal of Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2018.06.003 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Evolutionary Psychology and Endocrinology
Roney, J. R. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119125563.evpsych246 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Vulvar Care: Reviewing Concepts in Daily Hygiene
Bohbot, J.-M., Rebelo, C., & Nappi, R. E. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13131523 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“One study showed that male olfactive exposure to pre-ovulation axillary odors and (especially) vulvar odors was associated with higher saliva levels of testosterone and cortisone [46].”
Male Body Odor Affects Emotional State, LH, and Cortisol Secretion in Women of Different Age Groups
Laktionova, T. K., Kvasha, I. G., & Voznessenskaya, V. V. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14070721 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Most of the existing studies of body odor’s influence on cortisol secretion were performed on male recipients [12,13].”
BackgroundRoney, J. R., Mei, M., Grillot, R. L., & Thompson, M. E. (2023) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2023.03.003 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Li, Y., Chai, Q., Chen, Y., et al. (2024) · International Journal of Biological Macromolecules · doi:10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.134646 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Abey, N. O., Ebuehi, O. A. T., & Imaga, N. A. (2021) · Current Research in Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.crphys.2021.12.003 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Elango, K., & Kekäläinen, J. (2025) · Molecular Reproduction and Development · doi:10.1002/mrd.70010 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Men’s Exposure to Women’s Odors: The Effect of Women’s Waist to Hip Ratio and Steroid Hormones
Cerda‐Molina, A. L. (2013) · Journal of Steroids & Hormonal Science · doi:10.4172/2157-7536.1000141 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationMiclet, A., Mollaioli, D., Lauriola, M., Ciocca, G., Sansone, A., Jannini, E. A., & Limoncin, E. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph22101597 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“To quantitatively examine the association of olfaction on partner’s selection and on different phases of the sexual response according to D.E.P.O.R. (Desire, Excitation, Plateau, Orgasm, Resolution) model [18].”
Is androstadienone a human male pheromone? More research is needed
Gan, J., Wu, Y., Lei, X., & Han, C. (2024) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114733 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Enhanced sensitivity to odors due to chemosignals associated with anxiety
Wunder, A., Bürkel, N., Guder, I., Zorzin, J. I., Mühle, C., Loos, H. M., & Freiherr, J. (2025) · Communications Chemistry · doi:10.1038/s42004-025-01512-3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Research on vaginal dabbing: A systematic scoping review
Amzat, J., Kanmodi, K. K., & Egbedina, E. A. (2023) · Reproductive Female and Child Health · doi:10.1002/rfc2.23 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Wu, Y., Wei, R., Ou, J., et al. (2022) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2022.105266 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The Impact of Hormonal Contraceptives on Women’s Sexual and Mating Psychology
Cunningham, K., & Hill, S. E. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197536438.013.36 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Chen, Y., Wu, M., Mahmut, M. K., Lv, H., & Zou, L. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03134-9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Together with heightened sexual interest and arousal, elevated testosterone levels were observed [19, 21], a pattern similarly found following exposure to sexually arousing films or interactions with attractive women [21–23].”
Goldey, K. L. (2015) · Deep Blue (University of Michigan) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Abey, N. O., Ebuehi, O. A. T., & Imaga, N. A. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-282354/v1
Male Counter Strategies to Cyclic Shifts
Burriss, R. P. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_2003
A level playing field: No competitive advantage of conception risk in speed‐dating
Wu, K. L., & Chen, C. (2021) · Ethology · doi:10.1111/eth.13231
Enigmatic Neural Pathways: Potentiating Viral Neuroinvasion Into the CNS
López-Ojeda, W., & Hurley, R. A. (2021) · Journal of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.21060152
Male Counter Strategies to Cyclic Shifts
Burriss, R. P. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_2003-1
Hirasawa, Y. (2015) · Journal of Japan Association on Odor Environment · doi:10.2171/jao.46.273
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Jones, B. C., & Hahn, A. C. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_2002-1
Hormonal Predictors of Infidelity
Bochon, L., & Bird, B. M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197502891.013.3
(2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108943567.010
Moran, J. B., Salmon, C. A., & Burch, R. L. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108943567.013
Testosterone and male sexual function
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Schäfer, L., & Croy, I. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197544754.013.37
Zetzsche, M., Kücklich, M., Weiß, B., Stern, J., Lara, A. C. M., Birkemeyer, C., Penke, L., & Widdig, A. (2025) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2025.106742 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cerda-Molina, A. L., Hernández-López, L., de la O, C. E., Chavira-Ramírez, R., & Mondragón-Ceballos, R.
- Affiliations
- Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz (MX)
- Venue
- Frontiers in Endocrinology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 4
- Pages
- 159-159
- ISSN
- 1664-2392 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3809382
- OpenAlex
- W2164677338
- Semantic Scholar
- f6477920e418a0eea52349d02cb536b0c56aab9b
- Cited by
- 83
- References
- 65
- Citations by year
- 2025: 6 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 3.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Endocrinology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Sensory Systems › Olfactory and Sensory Function Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Hypothalamic control of reproductive hormones
- Keywords
- axillary odor, salivary testosterone, salivary cortisol, sexual desire, olfactory cues, menstrual cycle, periovulatory period, luteal phase, aroma perception, sexual attraction, men
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