CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 117Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens researchAntimicrobial agents and applicationsGut microbiota and health

Lauric Acid Is an Inhibitor of Clostridium difficile Growth in Vitro and Reduces Inflammation in a Mouse Infection Model

Open access
Yang, Hsiao-Ting, Chen, Jenn-Wei, Rathod, Jagat, Jiang, Yu-Zhen, Tsai, Pei-Jane, Hung, Yuan-Pin, Ko, Wen-Chien, Paredes-Sabja, Daniel +1 more·2018·Frontiers in Microbiology
DOI 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02635PMC PMC5776096
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

Clostridium difficile is a gram-positive, spore-forming anaerobic human gastrointestinal pathogen. C. difficile infection (CDI) is a major health concern worldwide, with disease symptoms ranging from diarrhea, pseudomembranous colitis, toxic megacolon, sepsis, and death. CDI onset and progression are mostly manifested based on intestinal dysbiosis and exposure to C. difficile spores. Current treatment strategies rely on antibiotic usage, which can often result in high recurrence rates and might increase the risk of developing antibiotic-resistant strains. Medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) have been revealed to inhibit the growth of multiple human bacterial pathogens. Previously, components of coconut oil, which included lauric acid, were revealed to inhibit C. difficile growth in vitro. Here we demonstrated that lauric acid exhibits potent antimicrobial activities against multiple toxigenic C. difficile isolates in vitro. The mechanisms of inhibition are due partly to the generation of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell membrane damage. Biofilm formation and preformed biofilm were also considerably reduced by the administration of lauric acid in a dose-dependent manner. Importantly, in a murine infection model, lauric acid pretreatment lessened CDI symptoms and reduced proinflammatory cytokine production. Our combined results suggest that naturally occurring MCFA lauric acid is a novel C. difficile inhibitor, and could be useful in the development of an alternative or adjunctive treatment for CDI.

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02635

Cites

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.

Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.

A few free checks a day · papers already verified open instantly · results are public

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Glycerol monolaurate may almost completely kill the vegetative cells and spores of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria.

    “Additionally, GML may almost completely kill the vegetative cells and spores of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria (Schlievert et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2018).”

    From Insect Derived Lauric Acid as Promising Alternative Strategy to Antibiotics in the Antimicrobial Resistance Scenario (2021) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2018

    The Discussion (page unavailable) says monolaurin, the monoglyceride form of lauric acid, has antibacterial potency, but a narrower antibacterial range. The Results concern lauric acid against C. difficile: they report reduced vegetative-cell viability and spore outgrowth, not that glycerol monolaurate almost completely kills vegetative cells and spores across aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. (LLM, conf=0.78)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Short-chain fatty acids exhibit antibacterial activity against various pathogens.

    “exhibiting antibacterial activity against various pathogens (Yang et al., 2018).”

    From Insect Derived Lauric Acid as Promising Alternative Strategy to Antibiotics in the Antimicrobial Resistance Scenario (2021) · cites this paper as Yang et al., 2018

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

The self-check needs the paper’s full text.

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 73 · Cited by 117

Research works printed but not linked: 69

  1. Ababouch L. Chaibi A. Busta F. F. (1992). Inhibition of bacterial spore growth by fatty acids and their sodium salts. J. Food Prot. 55 980– 984. 10.4315/0362-028x-55.12.980 31084102 · DOI
  2. Abt M. C. McKenney P. T. Pamer E. G. (2016). Clostridium difficile colitis: pathogenesis and host defence. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 14 609– 620. 10.1038/nrmicro.2016.108 27573580 PMC5109054 · DOI
  3. Ananthakrishnan A. N. (2011). Clostridium difficile infection: epidemiology, risk factors and management. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 8 17– 26. 10.1038/nrgastro.2010.190 21119612 · DOI
  4. Barbour A. Tagg J. Abou-Zied O. K. Philip K. (2016). New insights into the mode of action of the lantibiotic salivaricin B. Sci. Rep. 6: 31749. 10.1038/srep31749 27526944 PMC4985645 · DOI
  5. Bartolotta S. Garcia C. C. Candurra N. A. Damonte E. B. (2001). Effect of fatty acids on arenavirus replication: inhibition of virus production by lauric acid. Arch. Virol. 146 777– 790. 11402863
  6. Bergsson G. Arnfinnsson J. Steingrimsson O. Thormar H. (2001). In vitro killing of Candida albicans by fatty acids and monoglycerides. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 45 3209– 3212. 10.1128/AAC.45.11.3209-3212.2001 11600381 PMC90807 · DOI · Paper page
  7. Bhattacharjee D. Francis M. B. Ding X. McAllister K. N. Shrestha R. Sorg J. A. (2015). Reexamining the germination phenotypes of several Clostridium difficile strains suggests another role for the CspC germinant receptor. J. Bacteriol. 198 777– 786. 10.1128/JB.00908-15 26668265 PMC4810609 · DOI
  8. Buckley A. M. Spencer J. Candlish D. Irvine J. J. Douce G. R. (2011). Infection of hamsters with the UK Clostridium difficile ribotype 027 outbreak strain R20291. J. Med. Microbiol. 60(Pt 8) 1174– 1180. 10.1099/jmm.0.028514-0 21330415 PMC3167879 · DOI
  9. Burke K. E. Lamont J. T. (2014). Clostridium difficile infection: a worldwide disease. Gut Liver 8 1– 6. 10.5009/gnl.2014.8.1.1 24516694 PMC3916678 · DOI
  10. Carpo B. G. Verallo-Rowell V. M. Kabara J. (2007). Novel antibacterial activity of monolaurin compared with conventional antibiotics against organisms from skin infections: an in vitro study. J. Drugs Dermatol. 6 991– 998. 17966176
  11. Chen X. Katchar K. Goldsmith J. D. Nanthakumar N. Cheknis A. Gerding D. N. (2008). A mouse model of Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Gastroenterology 135 1984– 1992. 10.1053/j.gastro.2008.09.002 18848941 · DOI · Paper page
  12. Croasdell A. Duffney P. F. Kim N. Lacy S. H. Sime P. J. Phipps R. P. (2015). PPARgamma and the innate immune system mediate the resolution of inflammation. PPAR Res. 2015: 549691. 10.1155/2015/549691 26713087 PMC4680113 · DOI
  13. Crowther G. S. Chilton C. H. Todhunter S. L. Nicholson S. Freeman J. Baines S. D. (2014). Comparison of planktonic and biofilm-associated communities of Clostridium difficile and indigenous gut microbiota in a triple-stage chemostat gut model. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 69 2137– 2147. 10.1093/jac/dku116 24788662 · DOI
  14. Dapa T. Leuzzi R. Ng Y. K. Baban S. T. Adamo R. Kuehne S. A. (2013). Multiple factors modulate biofilm formation by the anaerobic pathogen Clostridium difficile. J. Bacteriol. 195 545– 555. 10.1128/JB.01980-12 23175653 PMC3554014 · DOI
  15. Dapa T. Unnikrishnan M. (2013). Biofilm formation by Clostridium difficile. Gut Microbes 4 397– 402. 10.4161/gmic.25862 23892245 PMC3839985 · DOI
  16. Dayrit F. M. (2015). The properties of lauric acid and their significance in coconut oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 92 1– 15. 10.1007/s11746-014-2562-7 · DOI · Paper page
  17. de Roos N. M. Schouten E. G. Katan M. B. (2001). Consumption of a solid fat rich in lauric acid results in a more favorable serum lipid profile in healthy men and women than consumption of a solid fat rich in trans-fatty acids. J. Nutr. 131 242– 245. 11160540
  18. Deakin L. J. Clare S. Fagan R. P. Dawson L. F. Pickard D. J. West M. R. (2012). The Clostridium difficile spo0A gene is a persistence and transmission factor. Infect. Immun. 80 2704– 2711. 10.1128/IAI.00147-12 22615253 PMC3434595 · DOI
  19. Deng K. Plaza-Garrido A. Torres J. A. Paredes-Sabja D. (2015). Survival of Clostridium difficile spores at low temperatures. Food Microbiol. 46 218– 221. 10.1016/j.fm.2014.07.022 25475288 · DOI
  20. Desai K. Gupta S. B. Dubberke E. R. Prabhu V. S. Browne C. Mast T. C. (2016). Epidemiological and economic burden of Clostridium difficile in the United States: estimates from a modeling approach. BMC Infect. Dis. 16: 303. 10.1186/s12879-016-1610-3 27316794 PMC4912810 · DOI
  21. Edwards A. N. Karim S. T. Pascual R. A. Jowhar L. M. Anderson S. E. McBride S. M. (2016). Chemical and stress resistances of Clostridium difficile spores and vegetative cells. Front. Microbiol. 7: 1698. 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01698 27833595 PMC5080291 · DOI
  22. Ekanayaka R. A. Ekanayaka N. K. Perera B. De Silva P. G. (2013). Impact of a traditional dietary supplement with coconut milk and soya milk on the lipid profile in normal free living subjects. J. Nutr. Metab. 2013: 481068. 10.1155/2013/481068 24282632 PMC3824402 · DOI
  23. Eyres L. Eyres M. F. Chisholm A. Brown R. C. (2016). Coconut oil consumption and cardiovascular risk factors in humans. Nutr. Rev. 74 267– 280. 10.1093/nutrit/nuw002 26946252 PMC4892314 · DOI · Paper page
  24. Ferreyra J. A. Wu K. J. Hryckowian A. J. Bouley D. M. Weimer B. C. Sonnenburg J. L. (2014). Gut microbiota-produced succinate promotes C. difficile infection after antibiotic treatment or motility disturbance. Cell Host Microbe 16 770– 777. 10.1016/j.chom.2014.11.003 25498344 PMC4859344 · DOI
  25. Fischer C. L. Drake D. R. Dawson D. V. Blanchette D. R. Brogden K. A. Wertz P. W. (2012). Antibacterial activity of sphingoid bases and fatty acids against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 56 1157– 1161. 10.1128/AAC.05151-11 22155833 PMC3294957 · DOI
  26. Francis M. B. Allen C. A. Sorg J. A. (2015). Spore cortex hydrolysis precedes dipicolinic acid release during Clostridium difficile spore germination. J. Bacteriol. 197 2276– 2283. 10.1128/JB.02575-14 25917906 PMC4524186 · DOI
  27. Galbraith H. Miller T. B. Paton A. M. Thompson J. K. (1971). Antibacterial activity of long chain fatty acids and the reversal with calcium, magnesium, ergocalciferol and cholesterol. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 34 803– 813. 10.1111/j.1365-2672.1971.tb01019.x 5004248 · DOI
  28. German J. B. Dillard C. J. (2004). Saturated fats: What dietary intake? Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 80 550– 559. 15321792
  29. Harnvoravongchai P. Pipatthana M. Chankhamhaengdecha S. Janvilisri T. (2017). Insights into drug resistance mechanisms in Clostridium difficile. Essays Biochem. 61 81– 88. 10.1042/EBC20160062 28258232 · DOI
  30. Hinton A. Jr. Ingram K. D. (2006). Antimicrobial activity of potassium hydroxide and lauric acid against microorganisms associated with poultry processing. J. Food Prot. 69 1611– 1615. 16865894
  31. Huang C. B. Alimova Y. Myers T. M. Ebersole J. L. (2011). Short- and medium-chain fatty acids exhibit antimicrobial activity for oral microorganisms. Arch. Oral Biol. 56 650– 654. 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2011.01.011 21333271 PMC3119748 · DOI
  32. Hung Y. P. Huang I. H. Lin H. J. Tsai B. Y. Liu H. C. Liu H. C. (2016). Predominance of Clostridium difficile ribotypes 017 and 078 among toxigenic clinical isolates in Southern Taiwan. PLOS ONE 11: e0166159. 10.1371/journal.pone.0166159 27861606 PMC5115699 · DOI
  33. Hung Y.-P. Ko W.-C. Chou P.-H. Chen Y.-H. Lin H.-J. Liu Y.-H. (2015). Proton-pump inhibitor exposure aggravates Clostridium difficile–associated colitis: evidence from a mouse model. J. Infect. Dis. 212 654– 663. 10.1093/infdis/jiv184 25805751 · DOI
  34. Immanuel G. Sivagnanavelmurugan M. Palavesam A. (2012). Antibacterial effect of short-chain fatty acids on gnotobiotic Artemia franciscana nauplii against Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Aquacult. Res. 43 518– 525. 10.1111/j.1365-2109.2011.02857.x · DOI
  35. Johnson S. (2009). Recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a review of risk factors, treatments, and outcomes. J. Infect. 58 403– 410. 10.1016/j.jinf.2009.03.010 19394704 · DOI
  36. Kabara J. J. Swieczkowski D. M. Conley A. J. Truant J. P. (1972). Fatty acids and derivatives as antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2 23– 28. 10.1128/AAC.2.1.23 4670656 PMC444260 · DOI
  37. Katan M. B. Zock P. L. Mensink R. P. (1994). Effects of fats and fatty acids on blood lipids in humans: an overview. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 60(Suppl. 6) 1017S– 1022S. 7977143
  38. Kim S. A. Rhee M. S. (2016). Highly enhanced bactericidal effects of medium chain fatty acids (caprylic, capric, and lauric acid) combined with edible plant essential oils (carvacrol, eugenol, beta-resorcylic acid, trans-cinnamaldehyde, thymol, and vanillin) against Escherichia coli O157:H7. Food Control 60 447– 454. 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.08.022 · DOI · Paper page
  39. Kint N. Janoir C. Monot M. Hoys S. Soutourina O. Dupuy B. (2017). The alternative sigma factor sigmaB plays a crucial role in adaptive strategies of Clostridium difficile during gut infection. Environ. Microbiol. 19 1933– 1958. 10.1111/1462-2920.13696 28198085 · DOI
  40. Kitahara T. Aoyama Y. Hirakata Y. Kamihira S. Kohno S. Ichikawa N. (2006). In vitro activity of lauric acid or myristylamine in combination with six antimicrobial agents against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents 27 51– 57. 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2005.08.020 16318911 · DOI
  41. Liu Y. W. Chen Y. H. Chen J. W. Tsai P. J. Huang I. H. (2017). Immunization with recombinant TcdB-encapsulated nanocomplex induces protection against Clostridium difficile challenge in a mouse model. Front. Microbiol. 8: 1411. 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01411 28790999 PMC5525027 · DOI
  42. Louie T. J. Cannon K. Byrne B. Emery J. Ward L. Eyben M. (2012). Fidaxomicin preserves the intestinal microbiome during and after treatment of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and reduces both toxin reexpression and recurrence of CDI. Clin. Infect. Dis. 55(Suppl. 2) S132– S142. 10.1093/cid/cis338 22752862 PMC3388020 · DOI
  43. Lynch P. Schemmel R. A. Kabara J. J. (1983). Anticariogenicity of dietary glycerol monolaurin in rats. Caries Res. 17 131– 138. 6572103
  44. Martin J. Wilcox M. (2016). New and emerging therapies for Clostridium difficile infection. Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. 29 546– 554. 10.1097/QCO.0000000000000320 27753689 · DOI
  45. Martin J. S. Monaghan T. M. Wilcox M. H. (2016). Clostridium difficile infection: epidemiology, diagnosis and understanding transmission. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 13 206– 216. 10.1038/nrgastro.2016.25 26956066 · DOI
  46. May T. Mackie R. I. Fahey G. C. Jr. Cremin J. C. Garleb K. A. (1994). Effect of fiber source on short-chain fatty acid production and on the growth and toxin production by Clostridium difficile. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 29 916– 922. 10.3109/00365529409094863 7839098 · DOI
  47. McDonald E. G. Milligan J. Frenette C. Lee T. C. (2015). Continuous proton pump inhibitor therapy and the associated risk of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. JAMA Intern. Med. 175 784– 791. 10.1001/jamainternmed.2015.42 25730198 · DOI · Paper page
  48. McEllistrem M. C. Carman R. J. Gerding D. N. Genheimer C. W. Zheng L. (2005). A hospital outbreak of Clostridium difficile disease associated with isolates carrying binary toxin genes. Clin. Infect. Dis. 40 265– 272. 10.1086/427113 15655746 · DOI
  49. Miller M. (2010). Fidaxomicin (OPT-80) for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Expert Opin. Pharmacother. 11 1569– 1578. 10.1517/14656566.2010.485614 20446864 · DOI
  50. Nakatsuji T. Kao M. C. Fang J. Y. Zouboulis C. C. Zhang L. Gallo R. L. (2009). Antimicrobial property of lauric acid against Propionibacterium acnes: its therapeutic potential for inflammatory acne vulgaris. J. Invest. Dermatol. 129 2480– 2488. 10.1038/jid.2009.93 19387482 PMC2772209 · DOI · Paper page
  51. Namkung H. Yu H. Gong J. Leeson S. (2011). Antimicrobial activity of butyrate glycerides toward Salmonella Typhimurium and Clostridium perfringens. Poult. Sci. 90 2217– 2222. 10.3382/ps.2011-01498 21934003 · DOI
  52. Nobmann P. Bourke P. Dunne J. Henehan G. (2010). In vitro antimicrobial activity and mechanism of action of novel carbohydrate fatty acid derivatives against Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA. J. Appl. Microbiol. 108 2152– 2161. 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2009.04622.x 19961546 · DOI
  53. Pettit L. J. Browne H. P. Yu L. Smits W. K. Fagan R. P. Barquist L. (2014). Functional genomics reveals that Clostridium difficile Spo0A coordinates sporulation, virulence and metabolism. BMC Genomics 15: 160. 10.1186/1471-2164-15-160 24568651 PMC4028888 · DOI
  54. Pizarro-Guajardo M. Diaz-Gonzalez F. Alvarez-Lobos M. Paredes-Sabja D. (2017). Characterization of chicken IgY specific to Clostridium difficile R20291 spores and the effect of oral administration in mouse models of initiation and recurrent disease. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 7: 365. 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00365 28856119 PMC5557795 · DOI
  55. Pruitt R. N. Chambers M. G. Ng K. K. Ohi M. D. Lacy D. B. (2010). Structural organization of the functional domains of Clostridium difficile toxins A and B. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107 13467– 13472. 10.1073/pnas.1002199107 20624955 PMC2922184 · DOI
  56. Rodriguez-Palacios A. Lejeune J. T. (2011). Moist-heat resistance, spore aging, and superdormancy in Clostridium difficile. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 77 3085– 3091. 10.1128/AEM.01589-10 21398481 PMC3126382 · DOI
  57. Rouse M. S. Rotger M. Piper K. E. Steckelberg J. M. Scholz M. Andrews J. (2005). In vitro and in vivo evaluations of the activities of lauric acid monoester formulations against Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49 3187– 3191. 10.1128/AAC.49.8.3187-3191.2005 16048923 PMC1196268 · DOI
  58. Ruhr E. Sahl H. G. (1985). Mode of action of the peptide antibiotic nisin and influence on the membrane potential of whole cells and on cytoplasmic and artificial membrane vesicles. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 27 841– 845. 4015074 PMC180163
  59. Ruzin A. Novick R. P. (2000). Equivalence of lauric acid and glycerol monolaurate as inhibitors of signal transduction in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 182 2668– 2671. 10762277 PMC111339
  60. Shearer A. E. Dunne C. P. Sikes A. Hoover D. G. (2000). Bacterial spore inhibition and inactivation in foods by pressure, chemical preservatives, and mild heat. J. Food Prot. 63 1503– 1510. 11079691
  61. Shilling M. Matt L. Rubin E. Visitacion M. P. Haller N. A. Grey S. F. (2013). Antimicrobial effects of virgin coconut oil and its medium-chain fatty acids on Clostridium difficile. J. Med. Food 16 1079– 1085. 10.1089/jmf.2012.0303 24328700 · DOI · Paper page
  62. Smits W. K. Lyras D. Lacy D. B. Wilcox M. H. Kuijper E. J. (2016). Clostridium difficile infection. Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers 2: 16020. 10.1038/nrdp.2016.20 27158839 PMC5453186 · DOI
  63. Sorg J. A. Sonenshein A. L. (2008). Bile salts and glycine as cogerminants for Clostridium difficile spores. J. Bacteriol. 190 2505– 2512. 10.1128/JB.01765-07 18245298 PMC2293200 · DOI · Paper page
  64. Theinsathid P. Visessanguan W. Kruenate J. Kingcha Y. Keeratipibul S. (2012). Antimicrobial activity of lauric arginate-coated polylactic acid films against Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella typhimurium on cooked sliced ham. J. Food Sci. 77 M142– M149. 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02526.x 22309353 · DOI
  65. Thompson J. L. Hinton M. (1997). Antibacterial activity of formic and propionic acids in the diet of hens on Salmonellas in the crop. Br. Poult. Sci. 38 59– 65. 10.1080/00071669708417941 9088614 · DOI
  66. Vardakas K. Z. Konstantelias A. A. Loizidis G. Rafailidis P. I. Falagas M. E. (2012). Risk factors for development of Clostridium difficile infection due to BI/NAP1/027 strain: a meta-analysis. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 16 e768– e773. 10.1016/j.ijid.2012.07.010 22921930 · DOI
  67. Villafuerte Galvez J. A. Kelly C. P. (2017). Bezlotoxumab: anti-toxin B monoclonal antibody to prevent recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection. Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 11 611– 622. 10.1080/17474124.2017.1344551 28636484 · DOI
  68. Wilcox M. H. Gerding D. N. Poxton I. R. Kelly C. Nathan R. Birch T. (2017). Bezlotoxumab for prevention of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 376 305– 317. 10.1056/NEJMoa1602615 28121498 · DOI
  69. Yonezawa H. Osaki T. Hanawa T. Kurata S. Zaman C. Woo T. D. (2012). Destructive effects of butyrate on the cell envelope of Helicobacter pylori. J. Med. Microbiol. 61(Pt 4) 582– 589. 10.1099/jmm.0.039040-0 22194341 · DOI

Authors
Yang, H.-T., Chen, J.-W., Rathod, J., Jiang, Y.-Z., Tsai, P.-J., Hung, Y.-P., Ko, W.-C., Paredes-Sabja, D., & Huang, I.-H.
Affiliations
  • National Cheng Kung University (TW)
  • National Cheng Kung University Hospital (TW)
Corresponding author
Huang, I-Hsiu
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Microbiology
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2018-01-17
Volume
8
Pages
2635-2635
ISSN
1664-302X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fmicb.2017.02635
PMC
PMC5776096
OpenAlex
W2784110953
Cited by
117
References
73
Citations by year
2026: 8 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 2
FWCI
6.81
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Microbiology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Repositorio Institucional Académico , Sistema de Bibliotecas Universidad Andrés Bello (UNAB) (Universidad Andrés Bello (UNAB)) (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan (106-2321-B-006 -008, 103-2320-B-006-028-MY2)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens research
  • Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Organic Chemistry › Antimicrobial agents and applications
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
Keywords
lauric acid, Clostridium difficile, Clostridium difficile infection, medium-chain fatty acids, antimicrobial activity, reactive oxygen species, cell membrane damage, biofilm formation, inflammatory cytokines, inflammation, coconut oil, mouse infection model

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review