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Cited by 159Insect Utilization and EffectsEssential Oils and Antimicrobial ActivityCoconut Research and Applications

Insect Derived Lauric Acid as Promising Alternative Strategy to Antibiotics in the Antimicrobial Resistance Scenario

Open access
Borrelli, Luca, Varriale, Lorena, Dipineto, Ludovico, Pace, Antonino, Menna, Lucia F., Fioretti, Alessandro·2021·Frontiers in Microbiology
DOI 10.3389/fmicb.2021.620798PMC PMC7952302
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Abstract

Antibiotic misuse is greatly contributing to an increase in antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in humans and animals. Natural and synthetic alternative strategies are being investigated in human and veterinary medicine, but little attention is paid to the antimicrobial effects of edible lipids, such as medium-chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and monoglycerides. Among MCFAs, lauric acid (LA) and its monoglyceride derivative, glycerol monolaurate (GML), exhibit the strongest antimicrobial activity. Coconut and palm kernel oils are considered the main sources of LA. On the other hand, some edible insects (e.g., Hermetia illucens) are gaining interest as novel feed ingredients, due to the high amount of LA they contain as well as their numerous bioactive components, which provide many additional benefits to animal health. Although the beneficial effect of both MCFAs and LA is gradually being recognized, their high content within insects and, consequently, their possible role as antimicrobials, has not been well-reported. This mini review focuses on the anti-infective effects of the insect-derived MCFAs LA and its derivatives. We emphasize the potential of insect lipids, compared to the other vegetable sources, in the current global scenario where a sustainable and circular economy is required. Finally, we critically discuss the use and the benefits of edible insects such as favorable options as feed and food from the perspective of animal and human nutrition.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This mini review argues that insect-derived lauric acid (LA) and its monoglyceride glycerol monolaurate (GML), especially from *Hermetia illucens*, may offer antimicrobial alternatives to antibiotics in the context of antimicrobial resistance. It highlights LA/GML antimicrobial mechanisms and animal-feeding evidence, while noting scarce in vivo data and limited human studies.

Key findings

  • LA and GML are described as the strongest antimicrobial medium-chain fatty acids/monoglycerides, acting via membrane lysis, disruption of electron transport/oxidative phosphorylation, inhibition of membrane enzymes, and interference with quorum sensing and virulence factors.
  • *Hermetia illucens* is reported as one of the main insect sources of LA, with up to 60% LA, whereas *Tenebrio molitor* has less than 0.5%; HI oil has a fatty acid profile similar to coconut and palm kernel oil.
  • In vivo animal studies summarized in Table 1 report effects such as a 2 log fold reduction of D-Streptococci in weaned piglets, increased *Lactobacillus* and *Bifidobacterium* with quadratically decreasing *E. coli* in weanling piglets, reduced *Enterobacteriaceae* in young turkeys, and lower *Yersinia enterocolitica* growth in growing rabbits.
  • The review states that many articles cover GML antimicrobial effects in vitro and in animal studies, but only three papers highlight in vivo antimicrobial effects in humans.

Methods

  • Design: narrative mini review of the anti-infective effects of insect-derived medium-chain fatty acids, focusing on LA and its derivatives.
  • Data/sample: no primary experimental data; the authors synthesize published in vitro, in vivo animal, and limited human literature, including a table of in vivo animal studies on insect-derived LA and GML.
  • Analysis: qualitative synthesis of mechanisms, sources, animal-feeding outcomes, and food/feed perspectives; no systematic search or quantitative meta-analysis is described.

Limitations

  • Stated: data on the antimicrobial effects of insect-based diet in vivo are scarce; EFSA has highlighted a lack of data on microbiology, virology, parasitology, and toxicology of edible insects, and there is limited information on risks, manufacturing processes, environmental impact, and human consumption data.
  • Stated: only three papers highlight in vivo antimicrobial effects in humans, and further human studies are recommended.
  • Evident from the text: as a mini review, it does not provide a systematic review protocol, risk-of-bias assessment, or quantitative synthesis; LA concentration and synthesis may vary with substrate, development stage, extraction method, killing method, and storage.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fmicb.2021.620798

Cites

76 of 76 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

32 of 92 cited sources checked · 16 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Lauric acid and glycerol monolaurate can modulate intestinal health by regulating the levels of IL-6 and TNF-α.

    “They can modulate intestinal health by regulating the level of IL-6 and TNF-α (Dabbou et al., 2020)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dabbou et al., 2020 source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) says lauric acid can modulate intestinal health and reports that black soldier fly fat reduced gastrointestinal inflammation by modulating IL-6 and TNF-α in turkeys. It does not attribute that cytokine effect specifically to lauric acid or glycerol monolaurate; the latter is not discussed as an agent with that effect. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Esterification of a fatty acid to its corresponding monoglyceride derivative enhances the antibacterial effect.

    “Overall, the esterification of a fatty acid to its corresponding monoglyceride derivative enhances the antibacterial effect (Yoon et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yoon et al., 2018 source
  • Premisecitation

    Medium-chain fatty acids exhibit antimicrobial activity through membrane-lytic behavior causing increased cell permeability and cell lysis.

    “Due to their amphipathic properties, MCFAs exhibit an antimicrobial activity through a membrane-lytic behavior causing increased cell permeability and cell lysis.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yoon et al., 2018 source
  • Premisecitation

    Glycerol monolaurate may almost completely kill the vegetative cells and spores of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria.

    “Additionally, GML may almost completely kill the vegetative cells and spores of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria (Schlievert et al., 2018; Yang et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Schlievert et al., 2018 source

      The Discussion (page not provided) reports that GML alone killed vegetative cells of all five tested organisms, including aerobes and anaerobes. It says the 5% GML gel was more effective against their spores; the Results (page not provided) report that B. anthracis spores resisted GML alone, declining by only about one log over 24 hours. The claim omits the gel formulation needed for the broader spore-killing result and overgeneralizes beyond the tested organisms. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Yang et al., 2018 source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) says monolaurin, the monoglyceride form of lauric acid, has antibacterial potency, but a narrower antibacterial range. The Results concern lauric acid against C. difficile: they report reduced vegetative-cell viability and spore outgrowth, not that glycerol monolaurate almost completely kills vegetative cells and spores across aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. (LLM, conf=0.78)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Bacteria are unlikely to acquire resistance to lauric acid and glycerol monolaurate.

    “because these bacteria are also unlikely to acquire resistance to these compounds (Petschow et al., 1996; Schlievert and Peterson, 2012; Jackman et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Petschow et al., 1996 source
    • cites Schlievert and Peterson, 2012 source

      The Discussion (page not provided) says that Staphylococcus aureus did not develop resistance after a year of exposure to sub-growth-inhibitory glycerol monolaurate (GML), and concludes that GML resistance is unlikely. The paper compares lauric acid with GML for antibacterial activity, but does not establish that resistance to lauric acid is unlikely or extend the resistance finding beyond S. aureus. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Jackman et al., 2020 source
  • May combine two claims. 27
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 11

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Antibiotic abuse in humans and animals has greatly contributed to an increase in antimicrobial resistance and to environmental accumulation of antibiotics by selecting resistant microorganisms.

    “Antibiotic abuse both in humans and animals has greatly contributed to an increase in AMR and has also caused the accumulation of these compounds in the environment by selecting resistant microorganisms and turning the environment into an enormous reservoir for AMR genes (Roca et al., 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Roca et al., 2015 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Monoglycerides form micelles at lower concentrations than medium-chain fatty acids, which helps explain why monoglycerides are often more biologically potent than fatty acids.

    “Monoglycerides form micelles at lower concentrations than MCFAs, which helps to clarify why monoglycerides are often more biologically potent than FAs (Jackman et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jackman et al., 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lauric acid has been indicated as a natural antibiotic against some dermal infections, such as acne, with no toxic effect on human sebocytes.

    “In addition, LA has even been indicated as a natural antibiotic against some dermal infections, such as acne, with no toxic effect on human sebocytes (Nakatsuji et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nakatsuji et al., 2009 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hermetia illucens contains chitin, which exhibits antimicrobial properties.

    “HI contains chitin which exhibits antimicrobial properties (Borrelli et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Borrelli et al., 2017 source

      The Introduction says black soldier flies contain chitin and that chitin or its derivatives seem to exhibit antimicrobial properties. The citing sentence states the antimicrobial property as established and attributes it specifically to chitin, without the source’s uncertainty or allowance for derivatives. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Insect lipids are allowed in feeding all animal species, but processed animal proteins are only permitted in aquaculture and extension of their authorization to poultry and swine feed is still pending.

    “So far, insect lipids are allowed in feeding all animal species, but PAPs (processed animal proteins) are only permitted in aquaculture and the possibility of extending the authorization of their use to poultry and swine feed is still pending (Sogari et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sogari et al., 2019 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Medium-chain fatty acids can directly inhibit membrane enzymes such as glucosyltransferase and target other membrane-associated proteins.

    “Furthermore, MCFAs can directly inhibit membrane enzymes such as glucosyltransferase and also target other membrane-associated proteins (Yoon et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yoon et al., 2018 source

      Section 2.3 says fatty acids can inhibit glucosyltransferase and target other membrane-associated proteins. But §2.3.3 attributes glucosyltransferase inhibition particularly to unsaturated fatty acids and says saturated fatty acids have an almost negligible effect. The cited passages therefore do not establish that medium-chain fatty acids, as a class, directly inhibit that enzyme. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Medium-chain fatty acids and their monoglycerides are promising additives for replacing in-feed antibiotics and promoting sustainable animal-food production, enhancing growth performance and animal welfare.

    “MCFAs and their monoglycerides have emerged as promising additives for replacing in-feed antibiotics and promoting sustainable animal-food production, enhancing growth performance and animal welfare (Jackman et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jackman et al., 2020 source

      The Anti-infective strategies section describes MCFAs and monoglycerides as potential antibiotic replacements, and the Growth performance section reports improved growth in some pig studies. The paper frames these as opportunities in pig production; the passages do not establish broader sustainable animal-food production or improved animal welfare. No page numbers are provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lauric acid and glycerol monolaurate destabilize the bacterial cell membrane.

    “Their ability to destabilize the bacterial cell membrane makes them promising candidates among novel antimicrobials”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Petschow et al., 1996 source
    • cites Schlievert and Peterson, 2012 source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) suggests that glycerol monolaurate may alter the bacterial plasma membrane, but presents this as a possible mechanism rather than an established ability to destabilize it. The Results report antibacterial activity for both compounds, but do not establish that lauric acid destabilizes the membrane. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Jackman et al., 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lauric acid and glycerol monolaurate are Generally Recognized As Safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration.

    “they are Generally Recognized As Safe (GRAS) by the United States Food and Drug Administration (Yoon et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yoon et al., 2018 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The presence of insect-derived lauric acid in animal feed could prevent the use of conventional antibiotics in meat production, limiting the diffusion of microbes harboring antimicrobial resistance genes.

    “The presence of insect-derived LA in animal feed could prevent the use of conventional antibiotics in meat production, limiting the diffusion of microbes harboring AMR genes (Dabbou et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dabbou et al., 2020 source
    • Rests on an assumption: The antimicrobial effects of insect-based diets in the summarized in vivo animal studies are attributable to their lauric acid and glycerol monolaurate content.
    • Rests on an assumption: The lauric acid content of Hermetia illucens, up to 60%, is sufficient to produce antimicrobial effects when included in feed.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HIL oil can replace palm kernel or coconut oil as additives and even pharmaceuticals.

    “The MCFAs composition of HIL oil is very similar and can replace palm kernel or coconut oil, as additives and even pharmaceuticals (Matthäus et al., 2019; Rabani et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Matthäus et al., 2019 source
    • cites Rabani et al., 2019 source

      The Discussion says Hermetia oil has a fatty-acid profile similar to coconut and palm-kernel oils and could be used in the same manner for cosmetics. It also proposes the oil as an animal-feed additive. The Abstract describes pharmaceutical applications as a potential avenue for future research, not an established use in which the oil can replace those oils. No page numbers are provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Butyrate inhibits histone deacetylase 3 to confer macrophages with non-inflammatory enhanced antimicrobial activity.

    “Butyrate also inhibits histone deacetylase 3 to confer macrophages with non-inflammatory enhanced antimicrobial activity (Shinde et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shinde et al., 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hermetia illucens oil in growing rabbits significantly lowered growth of Yersinia enterocolitica and positively influenced the cecal microbiota.

    “| HI oil | Growing rabbits | Significantly lower growth of Yersinia enterocolitica, positive influence on the cecal microbiota | Dabbou et al., 2020 |”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dabbou et al., 2020 source

      The Results (§3.1; page not provided) report significantly lower Yersinia enterocolitica growth in broth challenged with Hermetia illucens fat, not in growing rabbits. The Discussion (§4) suggests a positive effect of dietary insect fats on rabbits’ cecal microbiota, but presents that interpretation cautiously. (LLM, conf=0.90)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    An increase in demand for vegetable oils and biofuels contributes to water waste, tropical deforestation, loss in biodiversity, and habitat fragmentation.

    “The impact on the environment is also considerable, as an increase in demand for vegetable oils and biofuels contributes to water waste, tropical deforestation, loss in biodiversity, and habitat fragmentation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Wang et al., 2017 source

      The Discussion (page unavailable) compares the land and water requirements of black soldier fly larvae with plant proteins and discusses larvae as a potential biodiesel source. It does not address whether rising demand for vegetable oils or biofuels causes water waste, tropical deforestation, biodiversity loss, or habitat fragmentation; searches for those terms found no relevant passage. (LLM, conf=0.73)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Matthäus et al., 2019 source
    • cites Verheyen et al., 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Data on the antimicrobial effects of insect-based diet in vivo are scarce.

    “To date, data on the antimicrobial effects of insect-based diet in vivo are scarce.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hermetia illucens prepupae process organic waste very quickly and empty their digestive tract, limiting bacterial proliferation.

    “Furthermore, the prepupae process organic waste very quickly and empty their digestive tract, limiting bacterial proliferation (van Huis et al., 2013; Makkar et al., 2014; Muller et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites van Huis et al., 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Makkar et al., 2014 source
    • cites Muller et al., 2017 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lauric acid can inhibit hemolysin expression, extracellular polysaccharide production, and biofilm production through an RsbA-dependent pathway.

    “LA can inhibit hemolysin expression, extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) and biofilm production through RsbA (a histidine-containing phosphotransmitter of two-component signaling system) dependent pathway.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kumar et al., 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Hermetia illucens has an immune system in which cell-mediated and humoral innate mechanisms work jointly.

    “HI is characterized by an immune system in which cell-mediated and humoral innate mechanisms work jointly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zdybicka-Barabas et al., 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The activity of lauric acid is decreased by Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions and increased by lower pH, suggesting that lauric acid uptake is modulated by physico-chemical properties of the acid and the bacterial surface.

    “Galbraith and Miller (1973a, b) reported that the activity of LA was decreased by Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions and increased by lower pH, suggesting that the uptake of LA is modulated by physico-chemical properties of both the acid and the bacterial surface.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Galbraith and Miller (1973a, b)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Lauric acid inhibits the swarming motility of Proteus mirabilis in a dose-dependent manner and, at higher levels, acts on Clostridium difficile cell membranes and adhesins.

    “Kumar et al. (2020) showed that LA inhibits the swarming motility of P. mirabilis in a dose-dependent manner and, at higher levels, acts on Clostridium difficile cell membranes and adhesins.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kumar et al. (2020) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hermetia illucens is not considered a disease vector because the adult fly is not attracted to human habitats or foods and eggs are never laid on decaying organic material.

    “HI is not considered a disease vector, since the adult fly is not attracted to human habitats or foods and the eggs are never laid on decaying organic material.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites van Huis et al., 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Makkar et al., 2014 source
    • cites Muller et al., 2017 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Glycerol monolaurate inhibits the production of staphylococcal toxic shock toxin-1 and the expression of virulence factors including protein A, alpha-hemolysin, β-lactamase, and the induction of vancomycin resistance in Enterococcus faecalis by interfering with signal transduction.

    “GML also inhibits the production of staphylococcal toxic shock toxin-1 effectively and the expression of virulence factors including protein A, alpha-hemolysin, β-lactamase, and the induction of vancomycin resistance in Enterococcus faecalis by interfering with signal transduction (Projan et al., 1994; Ruzin and Novick, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Projan et al., 1994 source
    • cites Ruzin and Novick, 2000 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    In a vision of the circular economy, it would be possible to manage, reduce, and efficiently use organic waste for HIL rearing as a sustainable source of nutrients.

    “Therefore, in a vision of the circular economy, it would be possible to manage, reduce, and efficiently use organic waste for HIL rearing as a sustainable source of nutrients (according to the 4R of the EU Parliament Directive no. 2008/98 and the other Directive 94/62/EC).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites EU Parliament Directive no. 2008/98

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Directive 94/62/EC

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Encapsulation of medium-chain fatty acids could be a suitable solution to overcome their low solubility and unpleasant odors.

    “Encapsulation of MCFAs could be a suitable solution to overcome these limits (Zhou et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zhou et al., 2019 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Medium-chain fatty acids show low solubility and unpleasant odors that stimulate the release of cholecystokinin and reduce the feed intake of animals.

    “Moreover, MCFAs show low solubility and unpleasant odors that stimulate the release of cholecystokinin and reduce the feed intake of animals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zhou et al., 2019 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Direct inclusion of a PUFA-rich feed ingredient such as linseed in animal diets could be a useful strategy to provide healthier meat for human consumption.

    “as well as the direct inclusion of a PUFA-rich feed ingredient (i.e., linseed) in animal diets, could be a useful strategy to provide healthier meat for human consumption (Cullere et al., 2019b; Caimi et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cullere et al., 2019b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Caimi et al., 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hermetia illucens oil in young turkey reduced growth of Enterobacteriaceae and decreased levels of IL-6.

    “| HI oil | Young turkey | Reduced growth of Enterobacteriaceae, decreasing levels of IL-6 | Sypniewski et al., 2020 |”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sypniewski et al., 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Modulation of the substrate for Hermetia illucens larvae by using fish-offal waste could increase the n−3 proportion in Hermetia illucens larvae meal and oil.

    “As new alternatives to improve insect fats, the modulation of the substrate for the larvae by using fish-offal waste could increase the n− 3 proportion in Hermetia illucens larvae meal and oil”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Cullere et al., 2019b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Caimi et al., 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hermetia illucens meal in finishing pigs decreased the abundance of Streptococcus spp., increased the number of Lactobacillus, increased total SCFA concentrations, and upregulated the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10.

    “| HI meal | Finishing pigs | Decreased abundance of Streptococcus spp., increased number of Lactobacillus, higher concentrations of total SCFA, upregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) | Yu et al., 2019 |”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yu et al., 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There is very limited information on the risks associated with families or species of insects, manufacturing processes, environmental impact of farming systems, and human consumption data.

    “Currently, there is very limited information on the risks associated with families or species of insects, details of the manufacturing processes and the environmental impact of different farming systems, and there is also a lack of human consumption data (Ferri et al., 2019; van Huis, 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ferri et al., 2019 source
    • cites van Huis, 2020 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hermetia illucens meal in weanling piglets increased the number of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium and quadratically decreased the number of E. coli.

    “| HI meal | Weanling piglets | Increased number of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, quadratically decreasing number of E. coli | Yu et al., 2020 |”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yu et al., 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There are many articles on the antimicrobial effects of glycerol monolaurate in vitro and in vivo in animal studies, but only three papers highlight in vivo antimicrobial effects in humans.

    “There are many articles on the antimicrobial effects of GML in vitro and in vivo in animal studies but only three papers highlight in vivo antimicrobial effects in humans (Barker et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barker et al., 2019 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Hermetia illucens-derived oil might be useful in protecting against microbial infections, modulating inflammation, healing wounds, and controlling the balance and distribution of bacteria in gut microbiota.

    “In particular, HI-derived oil might be useful in protecting against microbial infections, modulating inflammation, healing wounds, and controlling the balance and distribution of bacteria in gut microbiota.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The antimicrobial effects of insect-based diets in the summarized in vivo animal studies are attributable to their lauric acid and glycerol monolaurate content.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Insect bioactive peptides and lipids have beneficial effects on human health, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic properties, angiotensin I converting enzyme inhibition activity, and effects against inflammation and cancer.

    “The insect bioactive peptides and lipids have beneficial effects on human health, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial and antidiabetic properties, angiotensin I converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition activity, effects against inflammation and cancer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Dutta et al., 2019 source
    • cites da Silva Lucas et al., 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The European Food Safety Authority has highlighted a lack of data regarding microbiology, virology, parasitology, and toxicology of edible insects.

    “The EFSA has highlighted a lack of data regarding microbiology, virology, parasitology, and toxicology of edible insects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ferri et al., 2019 source
    • cites van Huis, 2020 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Hippocratic concept that "we are what we eat" represents one of the biggest barriers to the consumption of insects in food neofobic western societies, which consider entomophagy to be disgusting.

    “The Hippocratic concept that “we are what we eat” is present in all cultures and it represents one of the biggest barriers to the consumption of insects in food neofobic western societies, which consider entomophagy to be disgusting (van Huis et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites van Huis et al., 2013

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

36 of 36

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The antimicrobial molecules in whole insects remain stable during feed processing and digestion.

    “If whole insects are used as feed, the antimicrobial molecules must remain stable during feed processing and digestion.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The antimicrobial effects of insect-based diets in the summarized in vivo animal studies are attributable to their lauric acid and glycerol monolaurate content.

    “TABLE 1 Antimicrobial effect of insect-derived LA and GML in in vivo animal studies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The lauric acid content of Hermetia illucens, up to 60%, is sufficient to produce antimicrobial effects when included in feed.

    “Among these, HI has the highest amount of LA (up to 60%) (Spranghers et al., 2017)”
3 of 3

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Authors
Borrelli, L., Varriale, L., Dipineto, L., Pace, A., Menna, L. F., & Fioretti, A.
Affiliations
University of Naples Federico II (IT)
Corresponding author
  • Borrelli, Luca
  • Varriale, Lorena
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Microbiology
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2021-02-26
Volume
12
Pages
620798-620798
ISSN
1664-302X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fmicb.2021.620798
PMC
PMC7952302
OpenAlex
W3135369628
Semantic Scholar
a0dad1c641ab07f0296b825b00ad34071b96dcf6
Cited by
159
References
76
Citations by year
2026: 29 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 6
FWCI
15.94
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Microbiology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Insect Science › Insect Utilization and Effects
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Essential Oils and Antimicrobial Activity
  • Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Inorganic Chemistry › Coconut Research and Applications
Keywords
lauric acid, glycerol monolaurate, medium-chain fatty acids, antimicrobial resistance, edible insects, Hermetia illucens, insect lipids, antibiotic alternatives, coconut oil, palm kernel oil, insect feed ingredients, circular economy, animal nutrition, human nutrition

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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