Variations in Dream Recall Frequency and Dream Theme Diversity by Age and Sex
Open accessAbstract
We assessed dream recall frequency (DRF) and dream theme diversity (DTD) with an internet questionnaire among a cohort of 28,888 male and female participants aged 10-79 years in a cross-sectional design. DRF increased from adolescence (ages 10-19) to early adulthood (20-29) and then decreased again for the next 20 years. The nature of this decrease differed for males and females. For males, it began earlier (30-39), proceeded more gradually, and reached a nadir earlier (40-49) than it did for females. For females, it began later (40-49), dropped more abruptly, and reached nadir later (50-59). Marked sex differences were observed for age strata 10-19 through 40-49 and year-by-year analyses estimated the window for these differences to be more precisely from 14 to 44 years. DTD decreased linearly with age for both sexes up to 50-59 and then dropped even more sharply for 60-79. There was a sex difference favoring males on this measure but only for ages 10-19. Findings replicate, in a single sample, those from several previous studies showing an increase in DRF from adolescence to early adulthood, a subsequent decrease primarily in early and middle adulthood, and different patterns of age-related decrease in the two sexes. Age-related changes in sleep structure, such as decreasing %REM sleep which parallel the observed dream recall changes, might help explain these findings, but these sleep changes are much smaller and more gradual in nature. Changes in the phase and amplitude of circadian rhythms of REM propensity and generational differences in life experiences may also account for some part of the findings. That decreases in DTD parallel known age-related decreases in episodic and autobiographical memory may signify that this new diversity measure indexes an aspect of autobiographical memory that also influences dream recall.
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There is no agreement about dream content qualitative features and dream recall rates in the life span among age groups.
“Nonetheless dream content and dream recall studies have been made both on healthy cohort and pathological samples at any age, there is no agreement about dream content qualitative features and dream recall rates in the life span among age groups.5,67–69,72”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
The Introduction (page unavailable) says there is a “relatively broad consensus” from survey and laboratory studies that dream recall decreases with age—the opposite of the claim that there is no agreement about recall rates across age groups. The Discussion reports that this study’s recall findings replicate previous studies. The paper discusses uncertainty about explanations for age-related dream-theme diversity, but that does not support the claim of no agreement about dream recall. (LLM, conf=0.89)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredChanges in dream recall rate seem to follow a linear decrement from first adulthood to late ages.
“the changes in dream recall rate seem to follow a linear decrement from first adulthood to late ages.72”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
The Discussion (‘Decrease in dream recall frequency’) says the decline occurs primarily in early-to-middle adulthood rather than later years, and describes different patterns for males and females. The Introduction likewise says several studies found an abrupt early decline rather than a progressive decrease across the lifespan. This contradicts a linear decrement from early adulthood to late age. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe modification of memory performance across early childhood parallels the improvement of dream recall rates in children.
“The modification of memory performance across early childhood, due in the firsts ages to the so-called infantile amnesia72–74 and subsequently to the development of cognitive functions,67 parallel the improvement of dream recall rates in children.”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
The Introduction (page unavailable) proposes that age-related changes in dreaming might parallel changes in memory, and the Discussion reports increasing dream recall from age 10 through adolescence. The paper does not establish that memory performance and dream recall improve in parallel during early childhood; its youngest participants were 10 years old, and the proposed memory connection is tentative. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredGender differences, gender orientation, and personality also affect dream recall frequency and dream features.
“some studies revealed that gender differences, gender orientation,72,143–145 and personality146 also affect dream recall frequency and dream features.”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
The Results (Dream recall frequency; page not provided) find that females recalled more dreams than males in several age groups, supporting the sex-difference portion. The Results (Dream theme diversity; page not provided) find no overall sex effect on theme diversity, and the cited paper does not address gender orientation. Personality has a separate citation in the citing sentence and is not attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDream recall frequency seems already reduced in first and middle adulthood.
“dream recall frequency seems already reduced in first and middle adulthood.72,132”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
The finding of a drop in dream recall rates starting from mid-adulthood seems counterintuitive in respect to the age-related decline hypothesis.
“the finding of a drop in dream recall rates starting from mid-adulthood72 seems counterintuitive in respect to the age-related decline hypothesis.”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
Overall findings disclose an age-related reduction in dream recall frequency.
“Despite the fact that the overall findings disclose an age-related reduction in dream recall frequency, it should be underlined that dream recall frequency seems already reduced in first and middle adulthood.72,132”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
Nielsen interpreted the observed flattening in dream theme diversity as linked to the decline in episodic or voluntary autobiographical memory in aging.
“The author considered TDQ as a measure of episodic or voluntary autobiographical memory, interpreting the observed flattening in dream theme diversity as linked to the decline in this kind of memory in aging.72”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
Results showed a linear decrement in the number of dream themes across ages.
“The results showed a linear decrement in the number of dream themes across ages.”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
Results point to sex differences in dream recall drop, with a later decline for women (begins at 40-49 years and nadir around 50-59 years) compared to men (begins at 30-39 years and reaches nadir at 40-49 years).
“The results point to sex differences in dream recall drop, with a later decline for women (which begins at 40–49 years and shows its nadir around 50–59 years) compared to men (which begins at 30–39 years and reaches its nadir at 40–49 years).72”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
The simple relationship between aging and dream recall decline has been confuted by different studies reporting a reduction in the number of dreams remembered from around 20-38 years.
“Consequently, the simple relationship between aging and dream recall decline has been confuted by different studies reporting a reduction in the number of dreams remembered from around 20–38 years.72,132,133”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
The results of a relationship between visual memory and dream length reported by Waterman, as well as the indirect link between dream recall decline and declarative memory addressed by Nielsen, strengthen the hypothesis of parallel development of cognitive performance and qualitative/quantitative features of dream reports across the life span.
“the results of a relationship between visual memory and dream length reported by Waterman,131 as well as the indirect link between dream recall decline and declarative memory addressed by Nielsen,72 strengthen the hypothesis of parallel development of cognitive performance and qualitative/quantitative features of dream reports across the life span.”
From Spotlight on dream recall: the ages of dreams (2018) · cites this paper as [72]
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“Some authors suggested the observed age-dependent delay in circadian rhythms could be an influencing factor on dream recall.(32,53,72,135,138) In this regard, Antrobus et al(53) observed that a delay of 3 hours in sleep onset leads to longer and more vivid dream report, compared to a control group with normal sleep sc…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialScarpelli, S., Gorgoni, M., Alfonsi, V., Annarumma, L., Natale, V. D., Pezza, E., & Gennaro, L. D. (2021) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.13429 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Scarpelli, S., D’Atri, A., Bartolacci, C., Gorgoni, M., Mangiaruga, A., Ferrara, M., & Gennaro, L. D. (2020) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci10060343 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Changes in dream features across the first and second waves of the Covid‐19 pandemic
Conte, F., Rescott, M. L., Rosa, O. D., Cellini, N., Coppola, A., Cerasuolo, M., Malloggi, S., Giganti, F., & Ficca, G. (2021) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.13425 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
The route to recall a dream: theoretical considerations and methodological implications
Nemeth, G. (2023) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-022-01722-7 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Scarpelli, S., D’Atri, A., Bartolacci, C., Mangiaruga, A., Gorgoni, M., & Gennaro, L. D. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2019.00985 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Is There a Link Between Frequency of Dreams, Lucid Dreams, and Subjective Sleep Quality?
Ribeiro, N., Gounden, Y., & Quaglino, V. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01290 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Dreaming during the COVID-19 pandemic: A narrative review
Gorgoni, M., Scarpelli, S., Alfonsi, V., & Gennaro, L. D. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104710 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Dreaming and nightmares in REM sleep behavior disorder.
Godin, I., Montplaisir, J. Y., & Nielsen, T. (2015) · Dreaming · doi:10.1037/drm0000011 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationHolzinger, B., Nierwetberg, F., Chung, F. F., Bolstad, C. J., Bjorvatn, B., Chan, N. Y., Dauvilliers, Y. A., Espie, C. A., Han, F., Inoue, Y., et al. (2022) · Nature and Science of Sleep · doi:10.2147/nss.s368147 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Kalantari, N., McDuff, P., Pilon, M., Desautels, A., Montplaisir, J.-Y., & Zadra, A. (2022) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2021.12.008 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Putois, B., Leslie, W., Asfeld, C., Sierro, C., Higgins, S., & Ruby, P. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.00724 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The individual determinants of morning dream recall
Elce, V., Bergamo, D., Bontempi, G., Pedreschi, B., Bellesi, M., Handjaras, G., & Bernardi, G. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00191-z · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The vision of dreams: from ontogeny to dream engineering in blindness
Vitali, H., Campus, C., GIORGIS, V. D., Signorini, S. G., & Gori, M. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine · doi:10.5664/jcsm.10026 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Guerrero-Gomez, A., Nöthen-Garunja, I., Schredl, M., Homberg, A., Vulcan, M., Brusìc, A., Bonizzi, C., & Iannaco, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.652627 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Barbeau, K., Lafrenière, A., Massaoud, H. B., Campbell, E., & Koninck, J. D. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.770380 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Epidemic dreams: dreaming about health during the COVID-19 pandemic
Šćepanović, S., Aiello, L. M., Barrett, D., & Quercia, D. (2022) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.211080 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
RBD: A Window into the Dreaming Process
Arnulf, I. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-90152-7_17 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Dream recall frequency is associated with attention rather than with working memory abilities
Blain, S., de la Chapelle, A., Caclin, A., Bidet‐Caulet, A., & Ruby, P. (2022) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.13557 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Structural and Functional Differences in Brain Mechanisms of Dream Recall
Scarpelli, S., Gorgoni, M., D’Atri, A., Ferrara, M., & Gennaro, L. D. (2019) · Handbook of behavioral neuroscience · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813743-7.00018-9 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
‘I love you’: the first phrase detected from dreams
Raduga, M. (2022) · Sleep Science · doi:10.5935/1984-0063.20220035 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Sleep and Cognition in the Elderly
Rauchs, G., Carrier, J., & Peigneux, P. (2013) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2013.00071 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Persistent Paradox of Rapid Eye Movement Sleep (REMS): Brain Waves and Dreaming
Pagel, J. F. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14070622 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Oneiric Activity during and after the COVID-19 Total Lockdown in Italy: A Longitudinal Study
Gorgoni, M., Scarpelli, S., Alfonsi, V., Annarumma, L., Pellegrini, E., Fasiello, E., Cordone, S., D’Atri, A., Salfi, F., Amicucci, G., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19073857 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Stucky, B. (2025) · Nature and Science of Sleep · doi:10.2147/nss.s506461 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Reduced dream-recall frequency in left-handed adolescents: A replication
Schredl, M., Beaton, A. A., Henley, J., & Blagrove, M. (2013) · Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1080/1357650x.2013.862257 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The neurocognition of dreaming: key questions and foci
Horton, C. L. (2023) · Emerging Topics in Life Sciences · doi:10.1042/etls20230099 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Dream habits in a large cohort of preteens and their relation to sleep and nocturnal awakenings
Eichenlaub, J., Bouet, R., Pinelli, M., & Portrat, S. (2024) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.14339 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Napias, A., Denechere, E., Mayo, W., & Ghorayeb, I. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0247506 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Adverse Childhood Experiences Are Associated With Adult Dream Content: A Cross-Sectional Survey
Ma, Y., Feng, X., Wang, D., Zhao, X., Yan, Z., Bao, Y., Zhu, R., Sun, Q., Deng, J., Lü, L., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.837347 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The evolution of sex differences in competitive and social dream content.
Grant, Z. B., Mir, A., Perogamvros, L., Sterpenich, V., Abbas, N., & Samson, D. (2026) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2026.105916 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Validez Estructural de una Versión Reducida del Cuestionario del Sueño de Mannheim
Mediano, M., & Alvarado, J. M. (2022) · Revista Iberoamericana de Diagnóstico y Evaluación - e Avaliação Psicológica · doi:10.21865/ridep66.5.04 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Does chronic pain influence our dreams? A dream content analytical approach
Mathes, J., & Schuffelen, J. (2023) · Somnologie - Schlafforschung und Schlafmedizin · doi:10.1007/s11818-023-00411-w · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Spinoni, M., Scarpelli, S., Benedetti, I. D. P., Med, C., Ciolli, P., Rech, F., Gennaro, L. D., & Grano, C. (2024) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.14423 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Nightmares and Homeostasis: When Bad Dreams fail to protect HPMood from Anxiety
Tunbridge, L. W., & Weinberg, M. K. (2014) · International journal of dream research · doi:10.11588/ijodr.2014.1.11959 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Dreaming in patients with epilepsy: a cross‐sectional cohort study
Charpentier‐Hélary, M., de la Chapelle, A., Linard, M., André‐Obadia, N., Boulogne, S., Catenoix, H., Jung, J., Rheims, S., Schiller, K., Frauscher, B., et al. (2025) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.14464 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Authors’ Response: Towards a Neurophenomenology of Embodied, Skillful Dreaming
Solomonova, E., & Wei, S. X. (2016) · Constructivist Foundations
L'attività elettrica cerebrale (EEG) predice la presenza del ricordo dei sogni?
Bartolacci, C., Scarpelli, S., & Gennaro, L. D. (2017) · RIVISTA SPERIMENTALE DI FRENIATRIA · doi:10.3280/rsf2017-002005
Rêves et activités mentales au cours du sommeil
Arnulf, I. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-2-294-74892-9.00004-7
Theta consciousness (Rapid eye movement sleep)
Pagel, J. F. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-99738-6.00013-7
Koninck, J. D. (2025) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197602751.013.5
Why do some of us vividly remember dreams and others say they ‘don’t dream’?
Fatima, Y., Aouira, N., & Wilson, D. L. (2026) · doi:10.64628/aa.7d3hy5fux
Bridging dream and wake states: a new tool for consciousness research
Temel, Z., Uzer, G., Senturk, H., Ay, E., Yayla, T. İ., Dikmen, M., Velioğlu, H. A., Yıldırım, E., & Hanoğlu, L. (2026) · Neuroscience of Consciousness · doi:10.1093/nc/niag038
Typical Dream Themes in a Large Internet Sample: A Replication and Extension
Friedrich, C. A., & Nielsen, T. (2026) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.70476
Self-citation
- Authors
- Nielsen, T.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Neurology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2012
- Volume
- 3
- Pages
- 106-106
- ISSN
- 1664-2295 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3389337
- OpenAlex
- W2118158106
- Cited by
- 51
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 0.98
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Neurology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
- Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- dream recall frequency, age differences, sex differences, REM sleep, sleep architecture, autobiographical memory, episodic memory, circadian rhythm, generational differences, life experience
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