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Cited by 124Embodied and Extended CognitionMindfulness and Compassion InterventionsAction Observation and Synchronization

Movement-based embodied contemplative practices: definitions and paradigms

Open access
Schmalzl, Laura, Crane-Godreau, Mardi A., Payne, Peter·2014·Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
DOI 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00205PMC PMC3995074
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Abstract

Over the past decades, cognitive neuroscience has witnessed a shift from predominantly disembodied and computational views of the mind, to more embodied and situated views of the mind. These postulate that mental functions cannot be fully understood without reference to the physical body and the environment in which they are experienced. Within the field of contemplative science, the directing of attention to bodily sensations has so far mainly been studied in the context of seated meditation and mindfulness practices. However, the cultivation of interoceptive, proprioceptive and kinesthetic awareness is also said to lie at the core of many movement-based contemplative practices such as Yoga, Qigong, and Tai Chi. In addition, it likely plays a key role in the efficacy of modern somatic therapeutic techniques such as the Feldenkrais Method and the Alexander Technique. In the current paper we examine how these practices are grounded in the concepts of embodiment, movement and contemplation, as we look at them primarily through the lens of an enactive approach to cognition. Throughout, we point to a series of challenges that arise when Western scientists study practices that are based on a non-dualistic view of mind and body.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This conceptual paper proposes definitions and paradigms for movement-based embodied contemplative practices (MECPs), examining them through embodiment, movement, and contemplation within an enactive approach to cognition. It argues that MECPs include overt, subtle, and imagined movement, and highlights challenges in studying non-dualistic mind-body practices from a Western scientific perspective.

Key findings

  • The paper defines a movement-based practice as one whose principal focus is the intentional induction, or intentional disinhibition, of overt movement or subtle internal sensations of movement; this excludes simply watching the breath while seated unless specific emphasis is placed on the subtle movement accompanying the breath.
  • It proposes extending “movement-based” to include very subtle and even imagined movement, citing motor control and motor imagery research and the Qigong technique of “moving the Qi.”
  • It suggests MECPs may involve additional distinct mechanisms beyond seated mindfulness practices and may offer a more efficient way to cultivate bodily awareness and the sense of self because movement increases proprioceptive stimuli.
  • It notes dyadic forms of MECPs involving “resonance,” and examples such as the Feldenkrais Method, Alexander Technique, and Somatic Experiencing; no original quantitative results are reported.

Methods

  • Conceptual/theoretical paper; no empirical sample, intervention, or statistical analysis is reported.
  • It synthesizes literature from enactive cognition, grounded cognition, neurophenomenology, and contemplative traditions, using examples such as Yoga, Qigong, Tai Chi, Feldenkrais, and Alexander Technique.
  • The main analysis is conceptual argument and taxonomy development for defining and studying MECPs.

Limitations

  • The paper states that Western scientists studying practices from ancient Eastern traditions risk shoehorning systems into existing conceptual frameworks, which can eliminate genuinely new discovery; it stresses understanding a system in its own terms before scientific interpretation.
  • It states that the extent to which findings on mindfulness and the default mode network relate to MECPs remains an open question.
  • Evident from the text: the paper offers no empirical data or systematic review methodology, and several mechanistic claims are explicitly speculative (“we speculate,” “we postulate,” “it is possible”); definitional boundaries also remain subject to interpretation, such as whether Hatha Yoga as physical therapy or Taijiquan as martial art are contemplative.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00205

Cites

67 of 67 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 66 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    Within contemplative science, the directing of attention to bodily sensations has so far mainly been studied in the context of seated meditation and mindfulness practices.

    “Within the field of contemplative science, the directing of attention to bodily sensations has so far mainly been studied in the context of seated meditation and mindfulness practices”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Didonna, 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Movement-based practices elicit measurable changes in physiological stress markers.

    “elicit measurable changes in physiological stress markers”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Lee et al., 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites West et al., 2004

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  • Premisecitation

    Movement-based practices elicit measurable changes in cognitive functioning.

    “cognitive functioning”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Manjunath and Telles, 2001

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    • cites Silva et al., 2007

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  • Premisecitation

    Movement-based practices elicit measurable changes in emotional states in healthy populations.

    “as well as emotional states in healthy populations”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chattha et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    Movement-based practices have been shown to alleviate the symptoms of various clinical conditions.

    “Movement-based practices have, however, been shown to alleviate the symptoms of various clinical conditions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Jahnke et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wren et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 26
  • May combine two claims. 12

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Mental functions cannot be fully understood without reference to the physical body and the environment in which they are experienced.

    “mental functions cannot be fully understood without reference to the physical body and the environment in which they are experienced”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Varela et al., 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Thompson, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Interoceptive, proprioceptive and kinesthetic awareness likely plays a key role in the efficacy of modern somatic therapeutic techniques such as the Feldenkrais Method and the Alexander Technique.

    “it likely plays a key role in the efficacy of modern somatic therapeutic techniques such as the Feldenkrais Method and the Alexander Technique”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The grounded theory of cognition posits that cognition, including abstract thought, conceptual knowledge and semantic memory, is grounded in the brain's modal sensory systems rather than being merely based on abstract computations.

    “The closely related “grounded theory” of cognition (Barsalou, 2008) posits that cognition (including abstract thought, conceptual knowledge and semantic memory) is grounded in the brain's modal sensory systems, rather than being merely based on abstract computations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Barsalou, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The cultivation of interoceptive, proprioceptive and kinesthetic awareness lies at the core of many movement-based contemplative practices such as Yoga, Qigong, and Tai Chi.

    “the cultivation of interoceptive, proprioceptive and kinesthetic awareness is also said to lie at the core of many movement-based contemplative practices such as Yoga, Qigong, and Tai Chi”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Over the past decades, cognitive neuroscience has shifted from predominantly disembodied and computational views of the mind to more embodied and situated views of the mind.

    “Over the past decades, cognitive neuroscience has witnessed a shift from predominantly disembodied and computational views of the mind, to more embodied and situated views of the mind.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Varela et al., 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bodily sensory systems are the first to develop and play a fundamental role in the formation of the sense of self.

    “bodily sensory systems are the first to develop and that they play a fundamental role in the formation of the sense of self”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sheets-Johnstone, 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The enactive approach postulates that human beings exist intrinsically as embodied beings.

    “the enactive approach postulates that human beings exists intrinsically as embodied beings”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Varela et al., 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Thompson, 2007

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    According to the enactive approach to cognition, living beings are autonomous agents that actively generate and maintain their physical and psychological identities, and that enact their cognitive domains through their activities.

    “According to the “enactive approach” to cognition (Thompson and Varela, 2001; Thompson, 2005; Di Paolo and Thompson, 2014), living beings are autonomous agents that actively generate and maintain their physical and psychological identities, and that enact their cognitive domains through their activities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Thompson and Varela, 2001

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    • cites Thompson, 2005

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    • cites Di Paolo and Thompson, 2014

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationcitation

    Feeling attracted or repulsed from something, or directing or withdrawing one's attention from something, can be seen as subtle forms of movement.

    “feeling attracted or repulsed from something, or even directing or withdrawing ones attention from something, can be seen as subtle forms of movement”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Day, 1964

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sheets-Johnstone, 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Such subtle movement may have the effect of re-programming counterproductive patterns of intention and action by bringing the process of initiating action up to full consciousness.

    “We postulate that such subtle movement may have the effect of re-programming counterproductive patterns of intention and action by bringing the process of initiating action up to full consciousness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    MECPs involving spontaneous movement may allow a constructive regression to early stages of development of voluntary motor control, and a consequent re-modeling of the sense of agency.

    “MECPs involving spontaneous movement may therefore allow a constructive regression to early stages of development of voluntary motor control, and a consequent re-modeling of the sense of agency.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Several challenges arise when Western scientists study practices that stem from ancient Eastern traditions.

    “several challenges arise when Western scientists study practices that stem from ancient Eastern traditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kerr, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Payne and Crane-Godreau, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    According to Somatic Experiencing theory, the practitioner is guided by the resonant relationship and verbally leads the client into internal and external movement, enabling a rebalancing of the autonomic nervous system.

    “According to SE theory, it is proposed that the practitioner is guided by the resonant relationship and verbally leads the client into internal and external movement, enabling a rebalancing of the autonomic nervous system”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Levine, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Meditative practices have also been found to be typically associated with altered activation of the default mode network and enhanced connectivity between cortical regions implicated in self-monitoring and cognitive control.

    “meditative practices have also been found to be typically associated with altered activation of the so-called default mode network (DMN) (Raichle et al., 2001), and enhanced connectivity between cortical regions implicated in self-monitoring and cognitive control (Brewer et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Raichle et al., 2001

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    • cites Brewer et al., 2011 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In the encounter between Western thought and Asian religions, the English word meditation has come to be used to denote a wide range of diverse practices.

    “In the encounter between Western thought and Asian religions however, the English word meditation has come to be used to denote a wide range of diverse practices”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brooks, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Movement is the principal function of the nervous system, and most advanced functions of the cortex can be seen as elaborations of the basic need to move toward or away from environmental stimuli.

    “movement is the principal function of the nervous system, and that most advanced functions of the cortex can be seen as elaborations of the basic need to move toward or away from environmental stimuli”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Llinás, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Sperry, 1952

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The experience of one's self in the world as a cognizant being does not solely emerge from neural activity within the brain; it involves a complex interplay of brain, body and environment, and the seamless integration of interoceptive, proprioceptive, kinesthetic, tactile, and spatial information.

    “the experience of one's self in the world as a cognizant being does not solely emerge from neural activity within the brain. Instead, it involves a complex interplay of brain, body and environment, and the seamless integration of interoceptive, proprioceptive (including vestibular), kinesthetic, tactile, and spatial information”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ehrsson, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Haselager et al., 2012

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    • cites Ionta et al., 2011

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    Somatic Experiencing might fall into the category of MECPs.

    “A further example of a novel therapeutic system that might fall into the category of MECPs is Somatic Experiencing (SE).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    What a living organism senses and perceives is a function of how it moves, and how a living organism moves is a function of what it senses and perceives.

    “What a living organism senses and perceives is a function of how it moves, and how a living organism moves is a function of what it senses and perceives”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maturana and Varela, 1987

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    They point out the risk of attempting to shoehorn a system into an already existing conceptual framework, which often eliminates the possibility of genuinely new discovery.

    “They point out the risk of attempting to shoehorn a system into an already existing conceptual framework, which often eliminates the possibility of genuinely new discovery.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kerr, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Payne and Crane-Godreau, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    In the context of MECPs, the redirection of attention predominantly entails cultivating awareness of bodily sensations and proprioceptive feedback related to the specifically employed movement and breathing techniques.

    “In the context of MECPs, the redirection of attention predominantly entails cultivating awareness of bodily sensations and proprioceptive feedback related to the specifically employed movement and breathing techniques.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Even in the most static forms of seated meditation the whole body is in constant subtle motion with the rhythm of the breath.

    “Even in the most static forms of seated meditation the whole body is in constant subtle motion with the rhythm of the breath.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Such practices involve putting oneself into a state of receptivity and surrendering to the spontaneous movement that arises.

    “Such practices involve putting oneself into a state of receptivity and surrendering to the spontaneous movement that arises.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The altered activity of the default mode network during meditative states has been proposed to underlie a shift to less self-centered and more objective awareness of interoceptive as well as exteroceptive sensory events.

    “The altered activity of the DMN during meditative states has therefore been proposed to underlie a shift to less self-centered and more objective awareness of interoceptive as well as exteroceptive sensory events”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brewer et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Since movement increases the intensity of proprioceptive stimuli, MECPs may offer a more efficient form of practice than seated meditation when it comes to cultivating bodily awareness and the sense of self.

    “since movement increases the intensity of proprioceptive stimuli (Prochazka, 2011), it is possible that MECPs may offer a more efficient form of practice than seated meditation when it comes to cultivating bodily awareness and the sense of self.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Prochazka, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    These authors underline the importance of having a thorough understanding of a system in its own terms before attempting to interpret it from a modern scientific perspective.

    “These authors underline the importance of having a thorough understanding of a system in its own terms before attempting to interpret it from a modern scientific perspective.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kerr, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Payne and Crane-Godreau, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Yoga and Qigong are broad and multifaceted categories, both including a range of 'meditative movement' practices, which are typically complemented by seated meditation techniques.

    “Yoga and Qigong are broad and multifaceted categories, both including a range of “meditative movement” practices (Larkey et al., 2009), which are typically complemented by seated meditation techniques.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Larkey et al., 2009

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    MECPs can also be practiced without specific reference to altered self-identity as such.

    “MECPs can also be practiced without specific reference to altered self-identity as such.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the state of resonance there is a largely automatically occurring sharing of affective and somatosensory experience, said to also involve a simultaneous activation of affective and sensory brain structures in both individuals.

    “In this state there is a largely automatically occurring sharing of affective and somatosensory experience, said to also involve a simultaneous activation of affective and sensory brain structures in both individuals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Siegel, 2007

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    • cites Nummenmaa et al., 2012

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In recent scientific explorations of contemplative practices, the terms 'contemplation' and 'meditation' have often been used interchangeably.

    “In recent scientific explorations of contemplative practices, the terms “contemplation” and “meditation” have often been used interchangeably.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For most practitioners of MECPs, contemplation represents the cultivation of sustained attention and equanimity, that for some has the ultimate aim of transforming habitual self-identity.

    “for most practitioners of MECPs contemplation represents the cultivation of sustained attention and equanimity (Desbordes et al., 2014), that for some has the ultimate aim of transforming habitual self-identity”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Desbordes et al., 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Premotor, supplementary motor as well as cerebellar areas are strongly activated during motor imagery without any actual physical movement, which in itself can improve motor skills and even physical strength.

    “premotor, supplementary motor as well as cerebellar areas are strongly activated during motor imagery without any actual physical movement (Gerardin et al., 2000), which in itself can improve motor skills and even physical strength (Yue and Cole, 1992; Sharma et al., 2006; Schuster et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gerardin et al., 2000

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    • cites Yue and Cole, 1992

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Schuster et al., 2011

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Most MECPs have their own intrinsic complex bodies of theory.

    “Most of these practices have their own intrinsic complex bodies of theory.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If neuroscience remains open to encountering phenomena not previously recognized, this will improve scientific understanding of human functioning and of how ancient practices can enhance human wellbeing in modern times.

    “If neuroscience will remain open to encountering phenomena not previously recognized, this will undoubtedly improve our scientific understanding of human functioning and of how ancient practices can enhance human wellbeing in our modern times.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
34 of 34

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    MECPs may involve additional distinct mechanisms beyond those already formulated for traditional mindfulness-based practices.

    “it can also be assumed that MECPs may involve additional distinct mechanisms”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Far fewer scientific studies have examined the mechanisms underlying MECPs such as Yoga or Qigong compared to mindfulness-based practices.

    “Compared to the extensive body of work on mindfulness-based practices, far fewer scientific studies have examined the mechanisms underlying movement-based embodied contemplative practices such as Yoga or Qigong.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This form of practice (moving the Qi) is regarded by most practitioners as essential to the benefits of Qigong.

    “This form of practice is regarded by most practitioners as essential to the benefits of Qigong.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most MECPs have their own intrinsic complex bodies of theory.

    “Most of these practices have their own intrinsic complex bodies of theory.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • SE shares its focus on internal awareness with traditional methods of meditative movement, such as Yoga, T'ai Chi and Qigong, as well as many forms of seated meditation.

    “SE shares this focus on internal awareness with traditional methods of meditative movement, such as Yoga, T'ai Chi and Qigong, as well as many forms of seated meditation (Schmalzl et al., 2014).”

    From Somatic experiencing: using interoception and proprioception as core elements of trauma therapy (2015) · cites this paper as Schmalzl et al., 2014

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 69 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Akers, 2002, The Hatha Yoga Pradipika: The Original Sanskrit (Swami Svatmarama) – An English translation (Brian Dana Akers)
  2. Alexander, 1989, The Alexander Technique: The Essential Writings of F. M. Alexander

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Schmalzl, L., Crane-Godreau, M. A., & Payne, P.
Affiliations
  • University of California San Diego (US)
  • Dartmouth College (US)
Corresponding author
Schmalzl, Laura
Venue
Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2014-04-14
Volume
8
Pages
205-205
ISSN
1662-5161 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fnhum.2014.00205
PMC
PMC3995074
OpenAlex
W2164090385
Semantic Scholar
b4af570ce12e9eec1cf99af720ebdf5ee1d34d83
Cited by
124
References
69
Citations by year
2026: 8 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 7 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 1
FWCI
5.58
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs
  • Flight Attendant Medical Research Institute
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
Keywords
embodied cognition, contemplative practice, enactivism, interoception, proprioception, kinesthetic awareness, yoga, qigong, Tai Chi, Feldenkrais method, Alexander Technique, somatic therapy, mind-body dualism

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