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Prefrontal Control and Internet Addiction: A Theoretical Model and Review of Neuropsychological and Neuroimaging Findings
Open accessAbstract
Most people use the Internet as a functional tool to perform their personal goals in everyday-life such as making airline or hotel reservations. However, some individuals suffer from a loss of control over their Internet use resulting in personal distress, symptoms of psychological dependence, and diverse negative consequences. This phenomenon is often referred to as Internet addiction. Only Internet Gaming Disorder has been included in the appendix of the DSM-5, but it has already been argued that Internet addiction could also comprise problematic use of other applications with cybersex, online relations, shopping, and information search being Internet facets at risk for developing an addictive behavior. Neuropsychological investigations have pointed out that certain prefrontal functions in particular executive control functions are related to symptoms of Internet addiction, which is in line with recent theoretical models on the development and maintenance of the addictive use of the Internet. Control processes are particularly reduced when individuals with Internet addiction are confronted with Internet-related cues representing their first choice use. For example, processing Internet-related cues interferes with working memory performance and decision making. Consistent with this, results from functional neuroimaging and other neuropsychological studies demonstrate that cue-reactivity, craving, and decision making are important concepts for understanding Internet addiction. The findings on reductions in executive control are consistent with other behavioral addictions, such as pathological gambling. They also emphasize the classification of the phenomenon as an addiction, because there are also several similarities with findings in substance dependency. The neuropsychological and neuroimaging results have important clinical impact, as one therapy goal should enhance control over the Internet use by modifying specific cognitions and Internet use expectancies.
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“Second, functional neuroimaging studies have shown that the same areas of the brain that are active in other substance and behavioral addictions are active in the brains of those who meet the diagnostic criteria for internet addiction (Brand, Young, & Laier, 2014; Han, Bolo, Daniels, Arenella, Lyoo, & Renshaw, 2011; Holden, 2001; Ko et al., 2009; Ko, Liu, Yen, Yen, Chen, & Lin, 2013; Kuss & Grif”
From Ethics of the Attention Economy: The Problem of Social Media Addiction (2021) · cites this paper as Brand, Young, & Laier, 2014
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“The neurobiological similarities between substance addiction and compulsive social media usage are striking, particularly in terms of prefrontal cortex (PFC) dysfunction, which is critical for impulse control and decision-making [32, 33].”
From The Impact of Social Media & Technology on Child and Adolescent Mental Health (2025) · cites this paper as [32]
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“Some studies have dealt with specific subtypes of Internet addiction (e.g., Love, Laier, Brand, Hatch, & Hajela, 2015; Müller et al., 2016; Pawlikowski, Nader, Burger, Stieger, & Brand, 2014; Rosenkranz, Müller, Dreier, Beutel, & Wölfling, 2017).”
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“Other paths within the proposed model, especially the role of cue-reactivity, craving, and executive functions for CA need to be addressed empirically in future studies (Brand et al., 2014).”
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“…of person-affect-cognition-execution) model was once proposed by Brand; he believed that addiction was the result of the interaction of psychopathological factors (negative emotions), individual susceptibility (genetics and personality), and cognitive and emotional factors (Brand et al., 2014).”
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Treatment Considerations in Internet and Video Game Addiction
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“A number of researches have reported that the PFC is strongly associated with executive functions (Brand et al., 2014).”
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Self-citationNew Concepts, Old Known Issues
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“Altered brain activations have been observed in executive-control-related brain regions (Dong, Li, Wang, & Potenza, 2017), including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and orbitofrontal cortex (Brand, Young, & Laier, 2014; Zheng et al., 2019).”
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Self-citationComparison of internet addiction, pattern and psychopathology between medical and dental students
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Factors associated with internet addiction among school-going adolescents in Vadodara
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“The prefrontal control processes are reduced in IA and found to be related to person’s loss of control over internet use.[17]”
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Is the I nternet gaming‐addicted brain close to be in a pathological state?
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“Nonetheless, this repeated stimulation can contribute to the development and maintenance of IA (23), creating a vicious cycle that can lead to an imbalance in the reward system.”
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“To understand relationships between SSS and PIPU in more detail, we draw on the Interaction of Person-AffectCognition-Execution (I-PACE) model of specific Internetuse disorders (Brand et al., 2014; Brand, Young, Laier, Wölfling, & Potenza, 2016).”
A study of the relationship between internet addiction: psychopathology and dysfunctional beliefs
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“Although cognitive control consists of a series of cognitive processes that regulate goal-directed actions and adaptive responses to complex situations, such as response inhibition, performance monitoring, and working memory (82), most studies concerning IGD mainly investigated inhibitory control or response inhibitio…”
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“For example, individuals with IAD show a decreased executive control ability, reflecting in the lack of ability to inhibit the behavior once it has been initiated or to refrain from the behavior after a period of abstinence (Brand et al., 2014; D’Hondt and Maurage, 2015).”
BackgroundEfficacy and Neural Mechanisms of Mindfulness Meditation Among Adults With Internet Gaming Disorder
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“In order to define cybersex addiction, it seems reasonable to adapt the suggested criteria of Internet Gaming Disorder (APA, 2013), because both refer to specific forms of Internet addiction (Brand et al., 2014; Young, Pistner, O’Mara, & Buchanan, 1999).”
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Behavioral modification decreases approach bias in young adults with internet gaming disorder
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“The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is a critical node of the central executive network (10), and the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which coactivates with the central executive network, is known to be involved in numerous cognitive operations (43).”
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“14, 15 As for generalized Internet addiction, they believe, just like Davis, that affected users mainly present a need to log in and spend time online.”
Sex Addiction as a Disease: Evidence for Assessment, Diagnosis, and Response to Critics
Phillips, B., Hajela, R., & Hilton, D. L. (2015) · Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity · doi:10.1080/10720162.2015.1036184 · Cited by 38
Associations of Mindfulness with Glucose Regulation and Diabetes
Loucks, E. B., Gilman, S. E., Britton, W. B., Gutman, R., Eaton, C. B., & Buka, S. L. (2016) · American Journal of Health Behavior · doi:10.5993/ajhb.40.2.11 · Cited by 38
Kuo, S., Chen, Y., Chang, Y., Lee, P., Liu, M.-J., & Chen, S. (2018) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12254 · Cited by 38
Redcay, A., & Simonetti, C. (2018) · Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity The Journal of Treatment and Prevention · doi:10.1080/10720162.2017.1403984 · Cited by 36
“…activations within the nucleus accumbens, the orbitofrontal cortex, and the caudate exist in those who abuse the internet when viewing their drug of choice compared to controls, including strong urges (Braus et al., 2001; Schacht et al., 2013; Sun et al., 2012 as cited in Brand et al., 2014).”
BackgroundDigital Media Behavior of School Students: Abusive Use of the Internet
García-Umaña, A., & Morueta, R. T. (2018) · Journal of New Approaches in Educational Research · doi:10.7821/naer.2018.7.284 · Cited by 39
“…and personal work, becoming a stimulus for global and interdisciplinary work and at the same time a common denominator between teachers and students anywhere in the world (Brand, Young & Laier, 2014), access to an inex-haustible sea of information and knowledge of multiple cultures and languages.”
Zhang, J., Hu, Y. Q., Li, H., Zheng, H., Xiang, M., Wang, Z., & Dong, G. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106203 · Cited by 34
The Pitfalls of Recycling Substance-Use Disorder Criteria to Diagnose Behavioral Addictions
Flayelle, M., Schimmenti, A., Starčević, V., & Billieux, J. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003032762-34 · Cited by 37
Wang, J., & Bing, D. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2020.00059 · Cited by 34
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“The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) plays a crucial role in executive functions, cognitive control, and decision (Brand et al. 2014).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSoares, L. S., Thorell, L. B., Barbi, M., Crisci, G., Nutley, S. B., & Burén, J. (2023) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2023.00007 · Cited by 30
Understanding older adults’ smartphone addiction in the digital age: empirical evidence from China
Xu, Y., Zeng, K., Dong, L., Zheng, X., & Si, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1136494 · Cited by 37
“org Although scholars have long focused on smartphone addiction (6, 7), current research on smartphone addiction has mainly focused on adolescents (8) and has ignored the problem of smartphone addiction in older adults (2).”
BackgroundSexual Excitability and Dysfunctional Coping Determine Cybersex Addiction in Homosexual Males
Laier, C., Pekal, J., & Brand, M. (2015) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2015.0152 · Cited by 34
“16 Here, the role of predispo-sitions, cognitions, and learning mechanisms were described for the development of Internet addiction.”
Self-citationCudo, A., Szewczyk, M., Błachnio, A., Przepiórka, A., & Jarząbek-Cudo, A. (2019) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-019-09685-6 · Cited by 32
Sela, Y., Bar‐Or, R. L., Kor, A., & Lev‐Ran, S. (2021) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2021.107023 · Cited by 33
Development of a short form of the compulsive internet use scale in Switzerland
Gmel, G. E., Khazaal, Y., Studer, J., Baggio, S., & Marmet, S. (2019) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1765 · Cited by 32
Balhara, Y. P. S., Singh, S., Saini, R., Kattula, D., Chukkali, S., & Bhargava, R. (2020) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102348 · Cited by 29
Exploring Internet gaming disorder: an updated perspective of empirical evidence (from 2016 to 2021)
Mestre‐Bach, G., Fernández‐Aranda, F., & Jiménez‐Múrcia, S. (2022) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2022.152319 · Cited by 30
Disrupted inter-hemispheric functional and structural coupling in Internet addiction adolescents
Bi, Y., Yuan, K., Feng, D., Xing, L., Li, Y., Wang, H., Yu, D., Xue, T., Jin, C., Qin, W., et al. (2015) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2015.08.012 · Cited by 28
“Based on the PFC dysfunctions in previous IA studies (Brand et al., 2014; Meng et al., 2014), we hypothesize that the VMHC values of PFC and the integrity of the fiber connecting the bilateral hemisphere would be abnormal and these changes would be correlated with duration and severity of IA.”
BackgroundDagher, M., Farchakh, Y., Barbar, S., Haddad, C., Akel, M., Hallit, S. R., & Obeïd, S. (2021) · Head & Face Medicine · doi:10.1186/s13005-021-00260-8 · Cited by 34
Development of Fırat Netlessphobia Scale and investigation of its psychometric properties
Kanbay, Y., FIRAT, M., Akçam, A., Özbay, S. Ç., & Özbay, Ö. (2021) · Perspectives In Psychiatric Care · doi:10.1111/ppc.12924 · Cited by 36
Tunney, C., & Rooney, B. (2022) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13591045221104569 · Cited by 33
Zhou, B., Zhang, W., Li, Y., Xue, J., & Zhang‐James, Y. (2020) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2020.112814 · Cited by 29
Khanbabaei, S., Abdollahi, M. H., & Shahgholian, M. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111280 · Cited by 26
Ye, S., Wang, M., Yang, Q., Dong, H., & Dong, G. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.08.078 · Cited by 26
Unexpected online gambling disorder in late-life: a case report
Sauvaget, A., Jiménez‐Múrcia, S., Fernández‐Aranda, F., Fagundo, A. B., Moragas, L., Wolz, I., Heras, M. V. D. L., Granero, R., del Pino‐Gutiérrez, A., Baño, M., et al. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00655 · Cited by 27
Relationship between internet addiction, psychopathology and self-esteem among university students
Budak, E., Taymur, İ., Aşkın, R., Güngör, B. B., Demirci, H., Akgul, A. I., & Sahin, Z. A. (2015) · The European Research Journal · doi:10.18621/eurj.2015.1.3.128 · Cited by 27
Relationships between Internet addiction and clinicodemographic and behavioral factors
ElSalhy, M., Miyazaki, T., Noda, Y., Nakajima, S., Nakayama, H., Mihara, S., Kitayuguchi, T., Higuchi, S., Muramatsu, T., & Mimura, M. (2019) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s193357 · Cited by 27
“10,38 These factors may work together to lead an individual toward overuse of specific services on the Internet, such as SNS and online games, and consequently to IA in some cases.”
BackgroundWinds, K., Aebi, M., & Plattner, B. (2022) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-022-01408-6 · Cited by 32
“Several factors are associated with the development and maintenance of PIU [25–27]: (1) neurobiology and genetics [28–33], (2) psycho-social aspects [2, 14, 34, 35], (3) psychological features [23, 36, 37], (4) psychopathology [15, 19, 38–41], (5) personality traits [42–47].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Brand, M., Young, K. S., & Laier, C.
- Affiliations
- Erwin L. Hahn Institute for Magnetic Resonance Imaging (DE)
- St. Bonaventure University (US)
- University of Duisburg-Essen (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Brand, Matthias
- Venue
- Frontiers in Human Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2014-05-27
- Volume
- 8
- Pages
- 375-375
- ISSN
- 1662-5161 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4034340
- OpenAlex
- W2111982163
- Cited by
- 565
- References
- 158
- Citations by year
- 2026: 42 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 50 · 2022: 62 · 2021: 58 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 43 · 2014: 9
- FWCI
- 14.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Human Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DuEPublico (University of Duisburg-Essen) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Gambling Behavior and Treatments
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Sexuality, Behavior, and Technology
- Keywords
- internet addiction, prefrontal control, executive function, cue reactivity, craving, decision-making, working memory, behavioral addiction, gambling addiction, internet gaming disorder, DSM-5, online shopping addiction, cybersex addiction
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