Vicarious Reinforcement in Rhesus Macaques (Macaca Mulatta)

“Stimuli were controlled by a computer running Matlab using PsychToolbox (Brainard, 1997; Pelli, 1997).”

“Stimuli were controlled by a computer running Matlab using PsychToolbox (Brainard, 1997; Pelli, 1997).”

“Reinforcement learning provides a powerful mechanism for associating stimuli and actions with the direct experience of reward and punishment (Rescorla and Wagner, 1972; Schultz et al., 1997; Sutton and Barto, 1998).”

“The “warm glow” hypothesis (Andreoni, 1990) suggests that vicarious reward and punishment motivates individuals to prefer either Edited by: Daeyeol Lee, Yale University School of Medicine, USA Reviewed by: Mehrdad Jazayeri, University of Washington, USA James Rilling, Emory University,…”

“It has been documented that social interaction behaviors increase with familiarity in both humans and monkeys (Preston and de Waal, 2002).”

“Such observations endorse the idea that neural mechanisms supporting vicarious reinforcement are derived specializations of the human brain, which support complex social behavior including observational learning, cooperation, and even altruism (Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003).”

“Others have argued that only those species most closely related to humans, namely chimpanzees and bonobos, possess the derived features of human biology and cognition, in particular “theory of mind” (Call and Tomasello, 2008), express other-regarding preferences, but again the evidence for such behavior in apes remain…”

“For example, fictive, or counterfactual, learning describes sensitivity to reward outcomes for options that were not chosen, were merely observed, or were even imagined (Byrne, 2002; Lohrenz et al., 2007; Epstude and Roese, 2008).”

“First, we examined social status, which is known to influence social behaviors in both young children and non-human animals (Hawley, 1999), and observational learning has been implicated in how monkeys acquire social hierarchical information (Cheney and Seyfarth, 1990).”

“We hypothesize that vicarious experiences are processed as rewarding signals in the brain, and are mediated by neurons in homologous circuits governing social perception and reward learning in non-human primates and humans (Bandura and Rosenthal, 1966; Fehr and Camerer, 2007; Lohrenz et al., 2007; Lee, 2008; Hayden et…”

“In some species, learning to perform a task is facilitated by watching others learn the same task (Zentall and Levine, 1972; Zentall et al., 1996; Drea and Wallen, 1999; Subiaul et al., 2004; Whiten et al., 2009).”

“Observing what happens to others also powerfully shapes human learning and behavior (Berger, 1962; Bandura and McDonald, 1963; Bandura et al., 1963).”

“Observing another mouse receive a shock can drive fear conditioning in the observer, and this observational fear conditioning depends on affective pain circuitry that has been implicated in empathy in humans (Jeon et al., 2010).”

“Given that monkeys generally respond more slowly when they anticipate smaller rewards (Kawagoe et al., 1998; Roesch and Olson, 2004), we inferred the subjective reward value of the four conditions to be R SELF > R BOTH and R OTHER > R NONE .”

“Human social emotions associated with vicarious reward and punishment, such as fairness and envy, appear early in ontogeny, and their derangement in mental disorders like psychopathy can have devastating consequences (Kiehl, 2006).”

“Given that monkeys generally respond more slowly when they anticipate smaller rewards (Kawagoe et al., 1998; Roesch and Olson, 2004), we inferred the subjective reward value of the four conditions to be R SELF > R BOTH and R OTHER > R NONE .”

“, 2009), show rudimentary understanding of the intentions of others (Flombaum and Santos, 2005), care for kin (Maestripieri, 1994), and may give up foods to alleviate pain in conspecifics (Masserman et al.”

“Observing what happens to others also powerfully shapes human learning and behavior (Berger, 1962; Bandura and McDonald, 1963; Bandura et al., 1963).”

“Such vicarious reinforcement may be driven by an intrinsic tendency to observe the experience of others to gather information, as can occur in foraging (Cheney and Seyfarth, 1990; Valone and Templeton, 2002).”

“Observing rewarding events of others has been shown to systematically and effectively modulate neural activity in classic reward areas in humans, including ventral striatum, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex (Mobbs et al., 2009; Lombardo et al., 2010).”

“Some have argued that the expression of other-regarding preferences in humans reflects the evolution of mechanisms that promote cooperative reproduction, but the evidence for other-regarding behaviors in cooperatively breeding animals remains controversial (Burkart et al., 2007; de Waal et al., 2008; Lakshminarayanan…”

“Dorsolateral and ventromedial prefrontal cortices in humans have been implicated in observing an action and observing reward outcome of others, respectively (Burke et al., 2010).”

“We hypothesize that vicarious experiences are processed as rewarding signals in the brain, and are mediated by neurons in homologous circuits governing social perception and reward learning in non-human primates and humans (Bandura and Rosenthal, 1966; Fehr and Camerer, 2007; Lohrenz et al., 2007; Lee, 2008; Hayden et…”

“The “warm glow” hypothesis (Andreoni, 1990) suggests that vicarious reward and punishment motivates individuals to prefer either Edited by: Daeyeol Lee, Yale University School of Medicine, USA Reviewed by: Mehrdad Jazayeri, University of Washington, USA James Rilling, Emory University, USA *Correspondence: Steve W. C.…”

“For example, fictive, or counterfactual, learning describes sensitivity to reward outcomes for options that were not chosen, were merely observed, or were even imagined (Byrne, 2002; Lohrenz et al., 2007; Epstude and Roese, 2008).”

“, 2007), and may depend on overlapping neural circuitry (Lohrenz et al., 2007; Hayden et al., 2009; Mobbs et al., 2009).”

“We hypothesize that vicarious experiences are processed as rewarding signals in the brain, and are mediated by neurons in homologous circuits governing social perception and reward learning in non-human primates and humans (Bandura and Rosenthal, 1966; Fehr and Camerer, 2007; Lohrenz et al., 2007; Lee, 2008; Hayden et…”

“, 2007), and may depend on overlapping neural circuitry (Lohrenz et al., 2007; Hayden et al., 2009; Mobbs et al., 2009).”

“…1990), display sensitivity to fictive outcomes in non-social settings (Hayden et al., 2009), show rudimentary understanding of the intentions of others (Flombaum and Santos, 2005), care for kin (Maestripieri, 1994), and may give up foods to alleviate pain in conspecifics (Masserman et al., 1964).”

“…attention in the absence of direct reward to self, suggesting vicarious reinforcement may be mediated by social attention circuits in the brain (Klein et al., 2009). saccade reactIon tIMes reveal the Internal delIBeratIve Process The pattern of saccade RTs on choice trials further corroborates…”

“The “warm glow” hypothesis (Andreoni, 1990) suggests that vicarious reward and punishment motivates individuals to prefer either Edited by: Daeyeol Lee, Yale University School of Medicine, USA Reviewed by: Mehrdad Jazayeri, University of Washington, USA James Rilling, Emory University, USA *Correspondence: Steve W. C.…”

“In some species, learning to perform a task is facilitated by watching others learn the same task (Zentall and Levine, 1972; Zentall et al., 1996; Drea and Wallen, 1999; Subiaul et al., 2004; Whiten et al., 2009).”

“In some species, learning to perform a task is facilitated by watching others learn the same task (Zentall and Levine, 1972; Zentall et al., 1996; Drea and Wallen, 1999; Subiaul et al., 2004; Whiten et al., 2009).”

“First, we examined social status, which is known to influence social behaviors in both young children and non-human animals (Hawley, 1999), and observational learning has been implicated in how monkeys acquire social hierarchical information (Cheney and Seyfarth, 1990).”

“In some species, learning to perform a task is facilitated by watching others learn the same task (Zentall and Levine, 1972; Zentall et al., 1996; Drea and Wallen, 1999; Subiaul et al., 2004; Whiten et al., 2009).”

“In some species, learning to perform a task is facilitated by watching others learn the same task (Zentall and Levine, 1972; Zentall et al., 1996; Drea and Wallen, 1999; Subiaul et al., 2004; Whiten et al., 2009).”

“…chimpanzees and bonobos, possess the derived features of human biology and cognition, in particular “theory of mind” (Call and Tomasello, 2008), express other-regarding preferences, but again the evidence for such behavior in apes remains inconclusive (Tomasello et al., 2003; Silk et al., 2005).”

“Frontiers in Neuroscience | Decision Neuroscience March 2011 | Volume 5 | Article 27 | 8 (Anderson and Mason, 1978).”

“This is consistent with observations that rhesus macaques are much more motivated when making voluntary choices compared to making simple operant responses (Suzuki, 1999).”

“These findings demonstrate context-dependent, vicarious reinforcement guides decision-making with respect to others in rhesus macaques.”

“A 1987), and their observational learning seems to be contingent on the associative strength of observed action and outcome (Crawford and Spence, 1921).”