Effects of IKur blocker MK-0448 on human right atrial action potentials from patients in sinus rhythm and in permanent atrial fibrillation
Open accessAbstract
Selective blockers of the Kv1.5 channel have been developed for the treatment of atrial fibrillation (AF), but little is known how these atrial-selective drugs affect human action potentials (APs). Therefore we have investigated the Kv1.5 blocker MK-0448 (N-{6-[(1S)-1-(4-fluorophenyl)-2,2-di(pyridin-3-yl)ethyl]pyridin-2-yl}methanesulfonamide) in right atrial trabeculae from patients in sinus rhythm (SR), permanent AF (> 6 months), and intermittent AF. MK-0448 blocked Kv1.5 current in an expression system and concentration-dependently elevated the plateau phase of atrial APs. In SR preparations stimulated at 1 Hz, MK-0448 (3 µM) shortened action potential duration at 90% of repolarization (APD90) and effective refractory period (ERP), but in permanent AF preparations, MK-0448 prolonged APD90 and ERP. The effects of MK-0448 in intermittent AF resembled those in SR preparations. The APD-prolonging effect in AF preparations was more pronounced than with other IKur blockers, most likely due to the additional blocking effect of MK-0448 on IKs, a current that is present both in the atrium and ventricle. Block of IKs is probably more prominent in AF because of reduced repolarization reserve due to AF-induced remodeling.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Several compounds that inhibit the ultrarapid potassium current (IKur) and other inhibitors of atypical ion channels are in clinical development.
“Several compounds that inhibit the ultrarapid potassium current (I Kur ) and other inhibitors of atypical ion channels are in clinical development.[673][674][675]”
From 2016 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with EACTS (2016) · cites this paper as [675]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Spontaneous initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating in the pulmonary veins.
Haïssaguerre, M., Jaïs, P., Shah, D. C., Takahashi, A., Hocini, M., Quiniou, G., Garrigue, S., Mouroux, A. L., Métayer, P. L., & Clémenty, J. (1998) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm199809033391003 · Cited by 8,040 · see citing works
Wang, Z., Fermini, B., & Nattel, S. (1993) · Circulation Research · doi:10.1161/01.res.73.6.1061 · Cited by 576 · see citing works
Kv1.5 channelopathy due to KCNA5 loss-of-function mutation causes human atrial fibrillation
Olson, T. M., Alekseev, A. E., Liu, X., Park, S., Zingman, L. V., Bienengraeber, M., Sattiraju, S., Ballew, J. D., Jahangir, A., & Terzic, A. (2006) · Human Molecular Genetics · doi:10.1093/hmg/ddl143 · Cited by 491 · see citing works
Effect of Atrial Fibrillation on Atrial Refractoriness in Humans
Daoud, E. G., Bogun, F. M., Goyal, R., Harvey, M. N., Man, K. C., Strickberger, S. A., & Morady, F. (1996) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/01.cir.94.7.1600 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Franz, M. R., Karasik, P. L., Li, C., Moubarak, J., & Chavez, M. (1997) · Journal of the American College of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/s0735-1097(97)00385-9 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Wettwer, E., Hála, O., Christ, T., Heubach, J., Dobrev, D., Knaut, M., Varró, A., & Ravens, U. (2004) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/01.cir.0000145155.60288.71 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Self-citationSnyders, D. J., Tamkun, M. M., & Bennett, P. B. (1993) · The Journal of General Physiology · doi:10.1085/jgp.101.4.513 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Differences between outward currents of human atrial and subepicardial ventricular myocytes.
Amos, G. J., Wettwer, E., Metzger, F., Li, Q., Himmel, H. M., & Ravens, U. (1996) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1996.sp021194 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Self-citationFailure in the rate adaptation of the atrial refractory period: its relationship to vulnerability
ATTUEL, P., Childers, R., CAUCHEMEZ, B., Poveda, J., Múgica, J., & Coumel, P. (1982) · International Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/0167-5273(82)90032-8 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Localization of the Kv1.5 K+ channel protein in explanted cardiac tissue.
Mays, D. J., Foose, J. M., Philipson, L. H., & Tamkun, M. M. (1995) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci118032 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Remodeling of cardiomyocyte ion channels in human atrial fibrillation
Dobrev, D., & Ravens, U. (2003) · Basic Research in Cardiology · doi:10.1007/s00395-003-0409-8 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Self-citationChristophersen, I. E., OLESEN, M. S., Liang, B., Andersen, M. N., Larsen, A. P., Nielsen, J. B., Haunsø, S., Olesen, S., Tveit, A., Svendsen, J. H., et al. (2012) · European Heart Journal · doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehs442 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Ultra-rapid delayed rectifier channels: molecular basis and therapeutic implications
Ravens, U., & Wettwer, E. (2010) · Cardiovascular Research · doi:10.1093/cvr/cvq398 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Self-citationRadicke, S., Cotella, D., GRAF, E., BANSE, U., Jost, N., Varró, A., Tseng, G., Ravens, U., & Wettwer, E. (2006) · Cardiovascular Research · doi:10.1016/j.cardiores.2006.06.017 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Self-citationChrist, T., Wettwer, E., Voigt, N., Hála, O., Radicke, S., Matschke, K., Varró, A., Dobrev, D., & Ravens, U. (2008) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1038/bjp.2008.209 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Self-citationFord, J. W., & Milnes, J. T. (2008) · Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology · doi:10.1097/fjc.0b013e3181719b0c · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Self-citationIKur/Kv1.5 channel blockers for the treatment of atrial fibrillation
Tamargo, J. L., Caballero, R., Gómez, R. J., & Delpón, E. (2009) · Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs · doi:10.1517/13543780902762850 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Ford, J., Milnes, J., Wettwer, E., Christ, T., Rogers, M., Sutton, K., Madge, D., Virag, L., Jost, N., Horvath, Z., et al. (2013) · Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology · doi:10.1097/fjc.0b013e31828780eb · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationGintant, G. A. (2000) · American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpheart.2000.278.3.h806 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
MK-0448, a Specific Kv1.5 Inhibitor
Pavri, B. B., Greenberg, H. E., Kraft, W. K., Lazarus, N., Lynch, J. J., Salata, J. J., Bilodeau, M. T., Regan, C. P., Stump, G. L., Fan, L., et al. (2012) · Circulation Arrhythmia and Electrophysiology · doi:10.1161/circep.111.969782 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Antiarrhythmic therapy in atrial fibrillation
Ravens, U. (2010) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2010.06.004 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationRegan, C. P., Wallace, A. A., Cresswell, H. K., Atkins, C. L., & Lynch, J. J. (2006) · Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics · doi:10.1124/jpet.105.094839 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Lynch, J. J., Houle, M. S., Stump, G. L., Wallace, A. A., Gilberto, D. B., Jahansouz, H., Smith, G. R., Tebben, A. J., Liverton, N. J., Selnick, H. G., et al. (1999) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/01.cir.100.18.1917 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
2016 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with EACTS
Kirchhof, P. F., Benussi, S., Kotecha, D., Ahlsson, A., Atar, D., Casadei, B., Castellà, M., Diener, H., Heidbüchel, H., Hendriks, J., et al. (2016) · EP Europace · doi:10.1093/europace/euw295 · Cited by 6,438 · see citing works
2016 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with EACTS
Kirchhof, P., Benussi, S., Kotecha, D., Ahlsson, A., Atar, D., Casadei, B., Castella, M., Diener, H.-C., Heidbuchel, H., Hendriks, J., et al. (2016) · European Heart Journal · doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehw210 · Cited by 6,418 · see citing works
2016 ESC Guidelines for the management of atrial fibrillation developed in collaboration with EACTS
Kirchhof, P., Benussi, S., Kotecha, D., Ahlsson, A., Atar, D., Casadei, B., Castella, M., Diener, H.-C., Heidbuchel, H., Hendriks, J., et al. (2016) · European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery · doi:10.1093/ejcts/ezw313 · Cited by 1,403 · see citing works
Atrial Myocyte NLRP3/CaMKII Nexus Forms a Substrate for Postoperative Atrial Fibrillation
Heijman, J., Muna, A. P., Veleva, T., Molina, C. E., Sutanto, H., Tekook, M. A., Wang, Q., Abu-Taha, I., Gorka, M., Künzel, S. R., et al. (2020) · Circulation Research · doi:10.1161/circresaha.120.316710 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Self-citationSánchez, C., Bueno‐Orovio, A., Wettwer, E., Loose, S., Simon, J., Ravens, U., Pueyo, E., & Rodríguez, B. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0105897 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationMolina, C. E., Abu-Taha, I., Wang, Q., Roselló-Díez, E., Kamler, M., Nattel, S., Ravens, U., Wehrens, X. H. T., Hove‐Madsen, L., Heijman, J., et al. (2018) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.01383 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Self-citationPriest, B. T., & McDermott, J. S. (2015) · Channels · doi:10.1080/19336950.2015.1076597 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
TRPM4 in cardiac electrical activity
Guinamard, R., Bouvagnet, P., Hof, T., Liu, H., Simard, C., & Sallé, L. (2015) · Cardiovascular Research · doi:10.1093/cvr/cvv213 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Cardiac Potassium Channels: Physiological Insights for Targeted Therapy
Jeevaratnam, K., Chadda, K. R., Huang, C. L.-H., & Camm, A. J. (2017) · Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics · doi:10.1177/1074248417729880 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Ford, J., Milnes, J., El-Haou, S., Wettwer, E., Loose, S., Matschke, K., Tyl, B., Round, P., & Ravens, U. (2015) · Heart Rhythm · doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2015.10.003 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationAtrial fibrillation: Therapeutic potential of atrial K + channel blockers
Ravens, U., & Odening, K. E. (2016) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2016.10.003 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationTargeting of Potassium Channels in Cardiac Arrhythmias
Burg, S., & Attali, B. (2021) · Trends in Pharmacological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tips.2021.03.005 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Sex differences in cardiac electrophysiology
Ravens, U. (2018) · Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology · doi:10.1139/cjpp-2018-0179 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationSynergistic Anti-arrhythmic Effects in Human Atria with Combined Use of Sodium Blockers and Acacetin
Ni, H., Whittaker, D. J., Wang, W., Giles, W. R., Narayan, S. M., & Zhang, H. (2017) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.00946 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Role of Calcium-activated Potassium Channels in Atrial Fibrillation Pathophysiology and Therapy
Diness, J. G., Bentzen, B. H., Sørensen, U. S., & Grunnet, M. (2015) · Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology · doi:10.1097/fjc.0000000000000249 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Atria-selective antiarrhythmic drugs in need of alliance partners
Peyronnet, R., & Ravens, U. (2019) · Pharmacological Research · doi:10.1016/j.phrs.2019.104262 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationAtrial-Selective Potassium Channel Blockers
Voigt, N., & Dobrev, D. (2016) · Cardiac Electrophysiology Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.ccep.2016.02.005 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Kraft, M., Büscher, A., Wiedmann, F., L’hoste, Y., Haefeli, W. E., Frey, N., Katus, H. A., & Schmidt, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.638445 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Atrial-selective K+ channel blockers: potential antiarrhythmic drugs in atrial fibrillation?
Ravens, U. (2017) · Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology · doi:10.1139/cjpp-2017-0024 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationEllinwood, N., Dobrev, D., Morotti, S., & Grandi, E. (2017) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2017.00799 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Novel K+ Channel Targets in Atrial Fibrillation Drug Development—Where Are We?
El-Haou, S., Ford, J. W., & Milnes, J. T. (2015) · Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology · doi:10.1097/fjc.0000000000000277 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationVerkerk, A. O., Marchal, G. A., Zegers, J. G., Kawasaki, M., Driessen, A. H. G., Remme, C. A., de Groot, J. R., & Wilders, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2021.649414 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Ellinwood, N., Dobrev, D., Morotti, S., & Grandi, E. (2017) · Chaos An Interdisciplinary Journal of Nonlinear Science · doi:10.1063/1.5000226 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Challenges Faced with Small Molecular Modulators of Potassium Current Channel Isoform Kv1.5
Zhao, Z., Ruan, S., Ma, X., Qian, F., Xie, Z.-S., Nie, Z., Fan, P., Qian, M., He, X., Wu, S., et al. (2019) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom10010010 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Brien, S. O., Holmes, A. P., Johnson, D. M., Kabir, S. N., Shea, C. O., Reilly, M. O., Avezzù, A., Reyat, J. S., Hall, A. W., Apicella, C., et al. (2022) · Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.yjmcc.2022.01.009 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Christ, T., Kovács, P. P., Acsai, K., Knaut, M., Thomas Eschenhagen, A., Jost, N., Varró, A., Wettwer, E., & Ravens, U. (2016) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2016.06.050 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationAbi‐Gerges, N., Miller, P. E., & Ghetti, A. (2019) · Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology · doi:10.2174/1389201021666191210142023 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Schulz, C., Sönmez, M. I., Krause, J., Schwedhelm, E., Pan, B., Alihodzic, D., Hansen, A., Thomas Eschenhagen, A., & Christ, T. (2023) · Stem Cell Reports · doi:10.1016/j.stemcr.2023.10.006 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Cellular heterogeneity and repolarisation across the atria: an in silico study
Elliott, J., Mainardi, L. T., & Matas, J. F. R. (2022) · Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing · doi:10.1007/s11517-022-02640-x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Discovery of MK-1832, a Kv1.5 inhibitor with improved selectivity and pharmacokinetics
Wolkenberg, S. E., Nolt, M. B., Bilodeau, M. T., Trotter, B. W., Manley, P. J., Kett, N. R., Nanda, K. K., Wu, Z., Cato, M. J., Kane, S. A., et al. (2017) · Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.12.054 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Ding, W., Tano, A., Mi, X., Kojima, A., Seto, T., & Matsuura, H. (2019) · Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry · doi:10.33594/000000022 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Aldosterone and the Mineralocorticoid Receptor in Atrial Fibrillation
Mamazhakypov, A., Peyronnet, R., & Lother, A. (2026) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.125.26187 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Xiao, G., Zhang, Y., Wu, W., Sun, H., Wang, Y., & Li, G. (2017) · British Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/bph.13710 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Antiarrhythmic therapy in the treatment of atrial fibrillation: yesterday, today, tomorrow
Podzolkov, V. I., & Tarzimanova, A. I. (2019) · CARDIOVASCULAR THERAPY AND PREVENTION · doi:10.15829/1728-8800-2019-3-81-87 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Elliott, J., Belen, M. K., Mainardi, L. T., & Matas, J. F. R. (2021) · Mathematics · doi:10.3390/math9141686 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Atrial hiPSC-CM as a Pharmacologic Model to Evaluate Anti-AF Drugs: Some Lessons From IKur
Schulz, C., Thomas Eschenhagen, A., & Christ, T. (2024) · Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology · doi:10.1097/fjc.0000000000001631 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
New methodological approaches to atrial fibrillation drug discovery
Wong, C., & Tse, H. (2020) · Expert Opinion on Drug Discovery · doi:10.1080/17460441.2021.1826432 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Antiarrhythmic principle of SK channel inhibition in atrial fibrillation.
Skibsbye, L. (2015) · PubMed · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Socuéllamos, P. G., Macías, Á., de Benito-Bueno, Á., Cruz, F. M., Redondo-Moya, M., Coronado, M. J., Ramil, E., Rosado, S., Rios-Rosado, E. C., Valencia-Avezuela, M., et al. (2026) · Cardiovascular Research · doi:10.1093/cvr/cvag049 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Abdelmagid, A. A. E., Mohammed, A. S. A., Mohácsi, G., Paskuj, B., Bitay, G., Tomek, J., Dalal, S., Árpádffy‐Lovas, T., Demeter‐Haludka, V., Koncz, I., et al. (2026) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp290706 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Hwang, S., Yoon, B., & Jo, S. (2023) · Naunyn-Schmiedeberg s Archives of Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00210-023-02521-6 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effect of Blocking I Kur on the Genesis of Action Potential Alternans in Canine Atrium
Zhao, N., Li, Q., Wang, K., He, R., Yuan, Y., & Zhang, H. (2019) · Computing in cardiology · doi:10.23919/cinc49843.2019.9005821 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Effect of Blocking IKur on the Genesis of Action Potential Alternans in Canine Atrium
Zhao, N., Li, Q., Wang, K., He, R., Yuan, Y., & Zhang, H. (2019) · Computing in cardiology · doi:10.22489/cinc.2019.124 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ion Channels as Drug Targets in Atrial Fibrillation
Ravens, U., & Peyronnet, R. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-33588-4_28
Self-citationCardiac Ion Channels: An Overview
Hunter, D. V., & Claydon, T. W. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-15734-9.00020-0
Potassium ion channel modulators for the treatment of arrhythmia
Lee, A., & Lin, C.-W. (2025) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-443-29808-0.00054-6
Mazhar, F., Severi, S., & Bartolucci, C. (2026) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2025.1704051
Role of Potassium Ion Channels in Vascular Tone Regulation and Hypertension
Gamarachchige, T. M., Thanigaimani, S., Barratt, K. S., & Golledge, J. (2026) · Arteriosclerosis Thrombosis and Vascular Biology · doi:10.1161/atvbaha.125.324059
Molitor, F., Abisola, M. O., Oluwaseun, A. A., & Natalya, S. Z. (2026) · Cardiovascular Science · doi:10.70322/cvs.2026.10007
BindingDB (2019) · UC San Diego · doi:10.7270/q2dv1n5f
- Authors
- Loose, S., Mueller, J., Wettwer, E., Knaut, M., Ford, J., Milnes, J., & Ravens, U.
- Affiliations
- Technische Universität Dresden (DE)
- Herzzentrum Dresden Universitätsklinik (DE)
- Xention (United Kingdom) (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Ravens, Ursula
- Venue
- Frontiers in Pharmacology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2014-03-04
- Volume
- 5
- Pages
- 26-26
- ISSN
- 1663-9812 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3940943
- OpenAlex
- W2106739281
- Cited by
- 49
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 4.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Pharmacology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- European Commission (261057)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiac electrophysiology and arrhythmias
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Atrial Fibrillation Management and Outcomes
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Ion channel regulation and function
- Keywords
- IKur, atrial fibrillation, action potential duration, effective refractory period, atrial remodeling, repolarization reserve, sinus rhythm
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
