How does artificial intelligence empower EFL teaching and learning nowadays? A review on artificial intelligence in the EFL context

“Unlike the traditional statistical MT, NMT aims to build a single neural network to maximize translation performance and overcome many weaknesses of conventional phrase-based translation systems (Bahdanau et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2016b).”

“Unlike the traditional statistical MT, NMT aims to build a single neural network to maximize translation performance and overcome many weaknesses of conventional phrase-based translation systems (Bahdanau et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2016b).”

“, 2018) and recurrent neural network (Mikolov et al., 2011), which can be easily adapted to handle different tasks.”

“With the deep learning (DL)-based AI techniques developing rapidly (Dong et al., 2021), DL has earned research attention in AIEd, especially in the EFL context.”

“With Artificial Intelligence (AI) consistently penetrating all domains of human life, recent years have witnessed the dramatic growth of AI in education (AIEd) (Hwang et al., 2020).”

“An automated method (Guan et al., 2020) was used to initially retrieve related publications from 2000 to 2022 in four databases (i.”

“Moreover, multi-task learning methods have been developed using one DL model to cover different tasks (Dong et al., 2015), e.”

“Affective computing (AC) is currently one of the most promising research topics (Tao and Tan, 2005), referring to “computing that relates to, arises from, or deliberately influences emotion or other affective phenomena” (Picard, 1997).”

“…vocabulary learning and retention (Lai and Chen, 2021; Tai et al., 2022), enhancing English speaking and willingness to communicate (Ebadi and Ebadijalal, 2020), building ideal 2L self (Adolphs et al., 2018), and improving English learning motivation to reduce anxiety (Chien et al., 2020).”

“As one key issue discussed by UNESCO (2019), AIEd proliferates surging scientific output (Hinojo-Lucena et al., 2019).”

“AI Chatting Robots (AI chatbots) are computer programs with AI to promote intelligent human language interaction in a written or spoken form, which can provide a more fluid user experience by updating their knowledge and perception from previous conversations (Haristiani, 2019).”

“Continual learning (Aljundi et al., 2019) can be adopted to adaptively update the DL model to satisfy personalized requirements and tasks in the EFL context.”

“With AI technologies maturing enough to interact with a virtual environment, Intelligent Virtual Environment (IVE) is proposed as “a combination of intelligent techniques and tools, embodied in autonomous creatures and agents, together with effective means for their graphical representation and interaction of various…”

“For instance, AESs, NMT tools, and ITSs can serve asmonitoring and tutoring tools in the EFL instruction to promote EFL learning mainly from cognitive and linguistic perspectives (Groves and Mundt, 2015; Abu Ghali et al., 2018; Gao, 2021; Koh, 2022).”

“, audio, vision and even electroencephalo-graph, using AC techniques (Schoneveld et al., 2021), which can feed back to teachers or ITSs for further monitoring and improving the EFL learning.”

“Multiple benefits of applying VR tools in the EFL context have also been validated, for instance, improving vocabulary learning and retention (Lai and Chen, 2021; Tai et al., 2022), enhancing English speaking and willingness to communicate (Ebadi and Ebadijalal, 2020), building ideal 2L self (Adolphs et al.”

“Moreover, some research reveals that NMT tools are especially suitable for advanced L2 learners (Klimova et al., 2022).”

“Additionally, it’s noteworthy that the majority of published studies investigate EFL performance when applying AI in the EFL instructional settings, for instance, scaffolding argumentative writing by using AI chatbots (Guo et al., 2022), and improving speaking ability by deploying ITSs (Mohammadzadeh and Sarkhosh, 201…”

“Current commercialized applications using AESs in EFLwriting, namely Criterion and Pigai, are proved to bolster writing accuracy and motivate learners to do more writing practice and revision (Bai and Hu, 2017; Gao, 2021).”

“Concretely, embedded in the flipped classroom, ITSs help students solve problems (Mohamed and Lamia, 2018); assisting Self-Regulatory Learning (SRL), ITSs are proved to improve speaking skills (Mohammadzadeh and Sarkhosh, 2018); in COVID-19 context, ITSs can build students’ performance profiles to assist teachers in a…”

“, 2022), enhancing English speaking and willingness to communicate (Ebadi and Ebadijalal, 2020), building ideal 2L self (Adolphs et al.”

“To this end, large-scale Transformer (Shvetsova et al., 2022) can be pre-trained based on a large amount of multi-modal signals in self-supervised learning of multi-modal embedding space.”

“It is during the last two decades that Virtual Reality (VR) tools have been widely adopted in foreign language education (Rau et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020), exemplified by Google Earth (Chen et al., 2020), Google Tour Creator (Nobrega and Rozenfeld, 2019), and Google Expeditions (Xie et al., 2021).”

“, 2018) and reading comprehension (Xu et al., 2019).”

“On the one hand, AC should be properly used by the instructor for teaching (Wu et al., 2016a).”

“It is during the last two decades that Virtual Reality (VR) tools have been widely adopted in foreign language education (Rau et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020), exemplified by Google Earth (Chen et al.”

“Similarly, some empirical evidence suggests that using avatars can decrease foreign language anxiety and encourage learners to communicatemore successfully (MelchorCouto, 2017; York et al., 2021).”

“Notwithstanding the drawbacks of NMT tools revealed in some literature (Bahri and Mahadi, 2016), a considerable amount of literature suggest that NMT tools can benefit EFL students’ learning: from the cognitive and linguistic perspective, they promote selfdirected learning (Godwin-Jones, 2015), improve mastery of lexi…”

“Similarly, some empirical evidence suggests that using avatars can decrease foreign language anxiety and encourage learners to communicate more successfully (Melchor-Couto, 2017; York et al., 2021).”

“It is during the last two decades that Virtual Reality (VR) tools have been widely adopted in foreign language education (Rau et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020), exemplified by Google Earth (Chen et al.”

“, 2020), exemplified by Google Earth (Chen et al., 2020), Google Tour Creator (Nobrega and Rozenfeld, 2019), and Google Expeditions (Xie et al.”

“Notwithstanding the drawbacks of NMT tools revealed in some literature (Bahri and Mahadi, 2016), a considerable amount of literature suggest that NMT tools can benefit EFL students’ learning: from the cognitive and linguistic perspective, they promote selfdirected learning (Godwin-Jones, 2015), improve mastery of lexi…”

“To illustrate, the Affective Tutoring System (ATS) combining emotional expressions and AC, can detect learners’ emotional expressions, determine learners’ learning state, and give interactive feedback (Lin et al., 2012; Hasan et al., 2020).”

“, 2021) due to relatively low accuracy (Liu and Kunnan, 2016), insufficient high-quality comment on collocation errors and syntactic use (Gao, 2021), the frustrating levels of recognition, and the lack of convenience (McCrocklin, 2019).”

“Concretely, AI Chatbots can not only strengthen EFL learners’ mastery of language knowledge, including grammar and new vocabularies (Wang and Petrina, 2013), but also can improve English application skills, namely oral communication skills, listening and reading skills, and highquality argumentative writing skills (Ho…”

“Since teachers’ adoption of AI is determined by its effectiveness and efficiency (Du and Gao, 2022), from technical perspectives, more technical efforts need to be exerted to improve the assessment accuracy of AESs; from instructional perspectives, teachers are required to fully deploy the potential of AESs to improve…”

“It is noteworthy that from the affective perspective, they may lower language anxiety (Bahri and Mahadi, 2016).”

“…suggest that NMT tools can benefit EFL students’ learning: from the cognitive and linguistic perspective, they promote self-directed learning (Godwin-Jones, 2015), improve mastery of lexico-grammatical knowledge (Doherty and Kenny, 2014; Bahri and Mahadi, 2016), and develop productive (L2…”

“EFL teachers can also harness IVE to construct an interactive and collaborative virtual reality learning environment to scaffold EFL learning (Melchor-Couto, 2017; Lan et al., 2018).”

“A large and growing body of literature has suggested that AI can benefit language teaching and learning (Gao, 2021; Pikhart, 2021; Klimova et al., 2022), and ameliorate the quality of online EFL learning especially during the COVID-19 pandemic (Zitouni, 2022).”

“…vocabulary learning and retention (Lai and Chen, 2021; Tai et al., 2022), enhancing English speaking and willingness to communicate (Ebadi and Ebadijalal, 2020), building ideal 2L self (Adolphs et al., 2018), and improving English learning motivation to reduce anxiety (Chien et al., 2020).”

“A large and growing body of literature has suggested that AI can benefit language teaching and learning (Gao, 2021; Pikhart, 2021; Klimova et al., 2022), and ameliorate the quality of online EFL learning especially during the COVID-19 pandemic (Zitouni, 2022).”

“…raters in EFL writing instruction (Bai and Hu, 2017; Qian et al., 2021) due to relatively low accuracy (Liu and Kunnan, 2016), insufficient high-quality comment on collocation errors and syntactic use (Gao, 2021), the frustrating levels of recognition, and the lack of convenience (McCrocklin, 2019).”

“…in the EFL context tend to vary from being positive, which is in accord with Sumakul et al. (2022)’s findings, toward being conservative, as noted by Holstein et al. (2017) and Lin et al. (2017) that less-experienced instructors usually struggle to execute effective responses to analytics,…”

“However, some scholars still express some reservations about the effectiveness of using avatars in the EFL context, considering technical factors such as interacting with avatars outside the scripted application areas (Lotze, 2018), the acceptability of virtual avatars (Repetto, 2014).”

“Additionally, the affordability and limited access to networks still stump the implementation of IVE in the EFL context (Cowie and Alizadeh, 2022).”

“Some underscore that AESs can’t replace human raters in EFL writing instruction (Bai and Hu, 2017; Qian et al., 2021) due to relatively low accuracy (Liu and Kunnan, 2016), insufficient high-quality comment on collocation errors and syntactic use (Gao, 2021), the frustrating levels of recognition, and the lack of conv…”

“…ITSs help students solve problems (Mohamed and Lamia, 2018); assisting Self-Regulatory Learning (SRL), ITSs are proved to improve speaking skills (Mohammadzadeh and Sarkhosh, 2018); in COVID-19 context, ITSs can build students’ performance profiles to assist teachers in adapting online teaching…”

“Particularly, the close connection between emotions and language learning motivation is also empirically verified (Yu et al., 2022).”

“…and Lamia, 2018); assisting Self-Regulatory Learning (SRL), ITSs are proved to improve speaking skills (Mohammadzadeh and Sarkhosh, 2018); in COVID-19 context, ITSs can build students’ performance profiles to assist teachers in adapting online teaching modes and content wisely (Nagro, 2021).”

“On the other hand, the learner’s autonomy should be respected (Engel et al., 2017).”

“A large volume of published studies has verified that ATS can improve learning motivation and outcomes (Lin et al., 2012; Sionti et al., 2018; Wang and Lin, 2018; Hasan et al., 2020).”

“IVR can also serve as an effective means to engage EFL students virtually in Zoom virtual classroom teaching in covid-19 pandemic (Obari, 2020).”

“This includes the use of advanced artificial intelligence (AI)-based computer and mobile programs, which offer interactive and personalized tools for honing writing abilities as well as enhanced motivation (Jiang, 2022; Meunier et al., 2022; Yan, 2023).”

“There are various types of ITSs (e.g., Bibauw et al., 2019; Heift, 2010) and some use AI and machine learning algorithms to adapt to the needs of users (Jiang, 2022).”

“…other emerging technologies and applications with generative AI, such as ChatGPT (Latif & Zhai, 2023; Zhai, 2023), GPT4V (Lee & Zhai, 2023), Gemini (Lee, Latif et al., 2023), and affective computing (Jiang, 2022) also need more research to examine their potential to address education problems.”

“As AI technology continues to expand, its implications for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students have become increasingly important to consider (Ebadi & Amini, 2022); (Jiang (2022); (Wang, 2022).”

“Ethical considerations like privacy and inclusivity are vital (Jiang, 2022; Otero et al., 2023; Williams et al., 2020).”

“Jiang (2022) provided an overview of AI in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) by summarizing six major applications of AI: automatic evaluation systems, neural machine translation tools, intelligent tutoring systems (ITSs), AI chatbots, intelligent virtual environments, and active…”

“Therefore, whereas studies have confirmed the positive effects of AI-based educational tools, it is essential to investigate educators ’ perspectives (Jiang, 2022).”

“AI tutoring systems have been found to provide individualized learning modes for students and simultaneously help teachers deliver lessons (R. Jiang, 2022; D. Lee et al., 2022).”

“Despite these advancements, persistent challenges persist, as articulated by Jiang (2022), emphasizing the need for ongoing technical advancements and the comprehensive utilization of AI’s potential by educators in assessment practices.”

“This result aligns with the study made by Jiang et al. [2] and Mukhallafi [24] which emphasized a variety of effective AI teaching and learning tactics for English.”

“Participants’ use of AI tools to enhance the quality of academic writing aligns with the positive perceptions reported in other studies (Gayed et al., 2022; Jiang, 2022; Shofiah & Putera, 2024).”

“Existing studies collectively expounded the applicability of AI in language learning and teaching, providing noteworthy insights into the potential benefits, challenges, and risks of AI technologies (Alenezi et al., 2023; Boudouaia et al., 2024; Jiang, 2022; Y. Lin & Yu, 2025).”

“This suggests a critical need for more empirical studies (Fidan & Gencel, 2022) that explore the pedagogical effectiveness of AI chatbots in diverse learning environments and investigate their long-term impact on language acquisition and proficiency (Jiang, 2022).”

“These applications in an EFL context include Automatic Evaluation Systems, Neural Machine Translation Tools, Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITSs), AI Chatting Robots, Intelligent Virtual Environments, and Affective Computing (AC) in ITSs (Jiang, 2022).”

“Moreover, with advanced intelligence, AI can offer learners personalized instruction, effectively serving as a machine alternative to human teachers in various learning scenarios (Jiang, 2022).”

“Jiang (2022) raises concerns about AI's tendency for standardization of writing, which can repress students' creativity and critical thinking in language usage.”

“The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) has garnered significant attention in educational circles, with AI widely regarded as a transformative tool capable of enhancing teaching efficiency and improving learning outcomes (Jiang, 2022; Ma et al., 2024).”

“…where learner-facing applications are related to personalized learning, chatbots, and ITSs to promote language learning, whereas AI-based, automated evaluation and grading systems are typically designed as teacher-supporting tools to decrease their workload and enhance teaching (Jiang, 2022).”

“The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic accelerated the adoption of digital learning tools, highlighting the potential of AI to maintain educational continuity and support remote learning, even in complex skill domains like communication [4].”

“Transparency in the implementation of AI tools is also critical, particularly in academic assessments, to maintain the validity and fairness of evaluations (Selwyn, 2021; Jiang, 2022).”

“These offer personalized and engaging tools for improving writing skills and boosting drive (Jiang, 2022; Meunier et al., 2022; Yan, 2023).”

“…individuals think that placing an excessive amount of value on artificial intelligence (AI) might eliminate the human element from the classroom, therefore diminishing the importance of one-on-one interaction, mentorship, and the cultivation of social and emotional skills (Jiang 2022; Seddik 2019).”

“From a practical perspective, to address the competency requirements and ethical challenges teachers encounter in the new AI educational reform (Akgun & Greenhow, 2022), educators must provide support to training first-line teachers and consider their concerns (Jiang, 2022).”

“GenAI-powered pedagogical strategies’ efficacy in fostering language competencies [1, 19, 27, 37] and EFL teachers’ and students’ corresponding perceptions [5, 6] have gained in-depth explorations.”

“Artificial Intelligence (AI) in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning has gained significant attention and is being increasingly integrated into language education (Jiang, 2022; Layali & Al-Shlowiy, 2020).”

“Also, supportive tools for teachers like AI-based automated evaluation systems and AI grading systems are intended to decrease teachers ’ workload and to enhance teaching (Jiang, 2022).”

“There are various types of ITSs (e.g., Bibauw et al., 2019) and some use AI and machine learning algorithms to adapt to the needs of users (Jiang, 2022).”

“Furthermore, integrating Affective Computing into Smart Tutoring Systems can aid in identifying and classifying learners’ emotions, providing appropriate emotional support to motivate EFL learning (Jiang, 2022).”

“The content analysis for highly related terms searched for EFL and AI, offered by Jiang (2022), differentiates between the six most common forms of AI used in the EFL context.”

“…cultures and nationalities (Kelly & Hou, 2022; steigerwald, et al., 2022). in a pedagogical context, mt is becoming an increasingly important tool (Jiang, 2022), with research exploring its potential to support students in reading, writing and writing more effectively, and learning new languages…”

“According to Jiang (2022), technology must be integrated into academic settings with integrity and professionalism.”

“This technological evolution has had a profound impact across a range of sectors, with education standing out as a domain where the influence is both significant and multifaceted (Holmes et al., 2019; Jiang, 2022).”

“Second, AI-based feedback’s bias toward Western English norms could disadvantage learners with Persian-influenced dialects, a challenge also observed in China’s Gaokao AI raters (Huang, 2024).”

“Regarding classroom configurations, Jiang [35] classifies AI applications in EFL into six mainstream types: automated scoring, neural machine translation, intelligent tutoring systems, AI chatbots etc.”

“…teaching has long been in the spotlight of the education community (Wang and Xue 2024). signi fi Extensive research indicates that AI holds cant potential to enhance teaching processes, emotional experience, and effectiveness (Dai and Wang 2024; Gentile et al. 2023; Jiang 2022; Mohamed 2023).”

“This issue was also underlined in a previous review study by Jiang (2022).”

“…the literature suggests that AI use requires teachers to engage in professional training to be prepared to embed AI into EFL where appropriate (Jiang, 2022), which must be done with the awareness that such technologies can provoke strong emotional reactions from teachers and learners (Shen &…”

“To promote AI acceptance, it is important to alleviate teachers’ “negative emotions” and introduce high-quality training opportunities through practicums and workshops incorporating diverse “EFL contexts” and “multiple teaching modes” (Jiang, 2022, p.5).”

“However, the growing body of literature suggests that AI can enhance language teaching and learning, particularly in online contexts [28].”

“These tools are specifically beneficial for EFL students because they provide chances consistent with efficient educational practices, like customized and quick feedback on fluency, pronunciation, and other dimensions of speaking performance (R. Jiang, 2022).”