The promises and pitfalls of large language models as feedback providers: A study of prompt engineering and the quality of AI-driven feedback
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Background/Objectives: Artificial intelligence (AI) is transforming higher education (HE), reshaping teaching, learning, and feedback processes. Feedback generated by large language models (LLMs) has shown potential for enhancing student learning outcomes. However, few empirical studies have directly compared the quality of LLM feedback with feedback from novices and experts. This study investigates (1) the types of prompts needed to ensure high-quality LLM feedback in teacher education and (2) how feedback from novices, experts, and LLMs compares in terms of quality. Methods: To address these questions, we developed a theory-driven manual to evaluate prompt quality and designed three prompts of varying quality. Feedback generated by ChatGPT-4 was assessed alongside feedback from novices and experts, who were provided with the highest-quality prompt. Results: Our findings reveal that only the best prompt consistently produced high-quality feedback. Additionally, LLM feedback outperformed novice feedback and, in the categories explanation, questions, and specificity, even surpassed expert feedback in quality while being generated more quickly. Conclusions: These results suggest that LLMs, when guided by well-crafted prompts, can serve as high-quality and efficient alternatives to expert feedback. The findings underscore the importance of prompt quality and emphasize the need for prompt design guidelines to maximize the potential of LLMs in teacher education.
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Court, A., Francis, N., Shore, A. M., & Rutherford, S. (2026) · FEBS Open Bio · doi:10.1002/2211-5463.70339
Kusi, E., & Sarfo, S. D. (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1938755
Prompt Engineering as Distributed Cognition and Epistemic Infrastructure in Higher Education
Alam, A. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-8332-3.ch004
Student Experiences and Engagement With Prompting
Silambarasan, G., & Shivaraj, G. (2026) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-2600-4664-7.ch010
Tsao, J.-J., & Liu, C.-Y. (2026) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440261497008
MELO, M. D., Rodrigues, L., Mello, R. F., Xavier, C., & Araújo, R. D. (2026) · Anais do ... Simpósio Brasileiro de Informática na Educação/Anais do Simpósio Brasileiro de Informática na Educação · doi:10.5753/sbie.2026.28113
- Authors
- Jacobsen, L. J., & Weber, K. E.
- Affiliations
- Universität Hamburg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Jacobsen, Lucas Jasper
- Venue
- AI
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2025-02-12
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 35
- ISSN
- 2673-2688 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4407405478
- Cited by
- 58
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 33 · 2025: 25
- FWCI
- 60.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- AI (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Artificial Intelligence in Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Student Assessment and Feedback
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Keywords
- large language models, AI-generated feedback, prompt engineering, prompt quality, teacher professional development, ChatGPT-4, higher education
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