Recent Developments on Hydrogen Production Technologies: State-of-the-Art Review with a Focus on Green-Electrolysis

Vidas, Leonardo; Castro, Rui

doi:10.3390/app112311363

Cited by 269Hybrid Renewable Energy SystemsElectrocatalysts for Energy ConversionFuel Cells and Related Materials

Recent Developments on Hydrogen Production Technologies: State-of-the-Art Review with a Focus on Green-Electrolysis

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Vidas, Leonardo, Castro, Rui·2021·Applied Sciences

DOI 10.3390/app112311363

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Abstract

Growing human activity has led to a critical rise in global energy consumption; since the current main sources of energy production are still fossil fuels, this is an industry linked to the generation of harmful byproducts that contribute to environmental deterioration and climate change. One pivotal element with the potential to take over fossil fuels as a global energy vector is renewable hydrogen; but, for this to happen, reliable solutions must be developed for its carbon-free production. The objective of this study was to perform a comprehensive review on several hydrogen production technologies, mainly focusing on water splitting by green-electrolysis, integrated on hydrogen’s value chain. The review further deepened into three leading electrolysis methods, depending on the type of electrolyzer used—alkaline, proton-exchange membrane, and solid oxide—assessing their characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages. Based on the conclusions of this study, further developments in applications like the efficient production of renewable hydrogen will require the consideration of other types of electrolysis (like microbial cells), other sets of materials such as in anion-exchange membrane water electrolysis, and even the use of artificial intelligence and neural networks to help design, plan, and control the operation of these new types of systems.

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Electrolysis efficacy is increased by putting salt and base or an acid as an electrolyte into the electrolyte solution.
“The rate of the reaction can be elevated by the utilization of an electrocatalyst, and electrolysis efficacy is increased by putting salt and base or an acid as an electrolyte into the electrolyte solution [51].”
From Silica Aerogels as a Promising Vehicle for Effective Water Splitting for Hydrogen Production (2025) · cites this paper as [51]
The rate of the water electrolysis reaction can be elevated by the utilization of an electrocatalyst.
“The rate of the reaction can be elevated by the utilization of an electrocatalyst, and electrolysis efficacy is increased by putting salt and base or an acid as an electrolyte into the electrolyte solution [51].”
From Silica Aerogels as a Promising Vehicle for Effective Water Splitting for Hydrogen Production (2025) · cites this paper as [51]

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Authors: Vidas, L., & Castro, R.
Affiliations: University of Lisbon (PT)
Instituto de Engenharia de Sistemas e Computadores Investigação e Desenvolvimento (PT)
Corresponding author: Castro, Rui
ORCID: Vidas, Leonardo
Castro, Rui
Venue: Applied Sciences
Publisher: MDPI AG
Published: 2021-12-01
Volume: 11
Issue: 23
Pages: 11363
ISSN: 2076-3417 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.3390/app112311363
OpenAlex: W3216541341
Cited by: 269
References: 124
Citations by year: 2026: 48 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 77 · 2023: 56 · 2022: 20
FWCI: 9.30
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: gold
doi.org
Licence: cc-by
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: Applied Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders: Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (UIDB/50021/2020)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Energy › Energy Engineering and Power Technology › Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems
Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Electrocatalysts for Energy Conversion
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Fuel Cells and Related Materials
Keywords: hydrogen production, green hydrogen, water electrolysis, alkaline electrolyzer, proton exchange membrane electrolyzer, solid oxide electrolyzer, anion exchange membrane water electrolysis, microbial electrolysis cells, hydrogen value chain, renewable energy

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Recent Developments on Hydrogen Production Technologies: State-of-the-Art Review with a Focus on Green-Electrolysis

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