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Cited by 50Advanced Battery Technologies ResearchExtraction and Separation ProcessesElectric Vehicles and Infrastructure

Repurposing Second-Life EV Batteries to Advance Sustainable Development: A Comprehensive Review

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Akram, Muhammad Nadeem, Abdul-Kader, Walid·2024·Batteries
DOI 10.3390/batteries10120452
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Abstract

While lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have pushed the progression of electric vehicles (EVs) as a viable commercial option, they introduce their own set of issues regarding sustainable development. This paper investigates how using end-of-life LIBs in stationary applications can bring us closer to meeting the sustainable development goals (SDGs) highlighted by the United Nations. We focus on how this practice can support three of these goals, namely Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy, Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production, and Goal 13: Climate Action. We present a literature review that details the aging mechanisms of LIBs, namely battery degradation, state of charge, state of health, depth of discharge, remaining useful life, and battery management systems. Then, we thoroughly examine the environmental and economic benefits of using second-life EV batteries in stationary applications and how they align with the SDGs. Our review of the literature summarizes the most relevant research in battery aging, giving a foundation for further research and allowing effective legislation to be written around EVs. Additionally, our examination of the benefits of using second-life batteries motivates initiatives for sustainable practices, helping both corporations and legislators orient their ideals towards the SDGs.

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  • Retired EV batteries typically retain 70-80% of their capacity, making them suitable for off-grid EV charging, microgrids, and stationary applications.

    “Retired EV batteries typically retain 70-80% of their capacity, making them suitable for off-grid EV charging, microgrids, and stationary applications [5].”

    From Designing a Sustainable Off-Grid EV Charging Station: Analysis Across Urban and Remote Canadian Regions (2026) · cites this paper as [5]

    The Introduction says EV batteries are removed for second-life use when capacity reaches 80% of the original, and discusses stationary applications and fast EV charging. The Bai et al. 2024 [137] summary discusses second-life batteries in isolated microgrids. The copy does not establish that retired batteries typically retain 70–80% of their capacity or specifically support off-grid EV charging; the 70–80% figure in the Conclusions table refers to efficiency, not retained capacity. No page numbers were supplied for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.86)

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Authors
Akram, M. N., & Abdul-Kader, W.
Affiliations
  • University of Windsor (CA)
  • Department of Mechanical, Automotive and Materials Engineering, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada
Venue
Batteries
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2024-12-20
Volume
10
Issue
12
Pages
452
ISSN
2313-0105 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/batteries10120452
OpenAlex
W4405641743
Cited by
50
References
203
Citations by year
2026: 28 · 2025: 22
FWCI
5.40
Type
journal article
Language
en
Update notices
correction (2024-12-20)
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Batteries (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Scholarship at UWindsor (University of Windsor) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
Funders
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (RGPIN-2020-05499)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Advanced Battery Technologies Research
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Extraction and Separation Processes
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
Keywords
second-life batteries, lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicles, end-of-life batteries, stationary energy storage, battery aging mechanisms, battery degradation, health status (engineering condition monitoring), state of charge, depth of discharge, remaining useful life, battery management systems, Sustainable Development Goals, SDG 12, affordable and clean energy, climate action

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