Designing a Sustainable Off-Grid EV Charging Station: Analysis Across Urban and Remote Canadian Regions

May combine two claims.

SLB has lower initial costs but may require replacement every 10-15 years, and operational costs depend on charge/discharge cycles and efficiency.

“SLB: lower initial costs but may require replacement every 10-15 years; operational costs depend on charge/discharge cycles and efficiency [36]”

• cites [36] Casals, 2019, Second life batteries lifespan: Rest of useful life and environmental analysis, J. Environ. Manag. sourcePartly supported

  The Results and discussion report that three studied applications last more than 10 years before replacement, including a transmission-deferral battery lasting almost 11 years; the paper does not give 10–15 years as a general replacement interval. The same passage estimates a lower selling price for second-life batteries than for new lithium-ion packs. Material and methods links battery ageing to use and accounts for charge/discharge efficiency losses, but does not establish how operational costs depend on cycles and efficiency. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Low temperatures reduce battery efficiency, usable capacity, and lifespan due to higher internal resistance and slower electrochemical reactions.

“Low temperatures reduce battery efficiency, usable capacity, and lifespan due to higher internal resistance and slower electrochemical reactions [40].”

• cites [40] Abdelrahman, A., Hu, Y., and Liu, J. (2025). Evaluating Low Temperature’s Impact on Lithium-Ion Batteries: Examination of Performance Metrics with Respect to Size and Chemistry. Machines, 13. sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction (page unavailable) links cold-induced capacity loss to higher internal resistance and slower charge-transfer kinetics, and describes permanent capacity loss from lithium plating during cold charging. Section 3.2 (page unavailable) reports reduced coulombic efficiency in 26650 cells at −30 °C, but little change in the smaller cells. The paper does not directly establish a reduction in battery lifespan, and the efficiency finding depends on cell size. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Proper battery management and hybrid backup (e.g., fuel cells) ensure system reliability, extend battery lifecycle, reduce e-waste, and support circular economy principles, aligning with sustainable development goals.

“Proper battery management and hybrid backup (e.g., fuel cells) ensure system reliability, extend battery lifecycle, reduce e-waste, and support circular economy principles, aligning with sustainable development goals [6].”

• cites [6] Akram, M.N., and Abdul-Kader, W. (2023). Sustainable Development Goals and End-of-Life Electric Vehicle Battery: Literature Review. Batteries, 9. sourcePartly supported

  Section 6 (Circular Economy; page not provided) says recycling closes the material loop, and Section 8 (Discussion; page not provided) links battery recycling to environmental benefits and a Sustainable Development Goal. The review also discusses reuse of end-of-life EV batteries, but the passages do not establish that battery management extends battery life or that fuel-cell hybrid backup ensures system reliability. Those specific mechanisms and outcomes are unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Retired EV batteries typically retain 70-80% of their capacity, making them suitable for off-grid EV charging, microgrids, and stationary applications.

“Retired EV batteries typically retain 70-80% of their capacity, making them suitable for off-grid EV charging, microgrids, and stationary applications [5].”

• cites [5] Akram, M.N., and Abdul-Kader, W. (2024). Repurposing Second-Life EV Batteries to Advance Sustainable Development: A Comprehensive Review. Batteries, 10. sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction says EV batteries are removed for second-life use when capacity reaches 80% of the original, and discusses stationary applications and fast EV charging. The Bai et al. 2024 [137] summary discusses second-life batteries in isolated microgrids. The copy does not establish that retired batteries typically retain 70–80% of their capacity or specifically support off-grid EV charging; the 70–80% figure in the Conclusions table refers to efficiency, not retained capacity. No page numbers were supplied for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

SLB is effective for short to medium-term storage, but performance declines with frequent deep discharges, limiting reliability during prolonged low-generation periods.

“SLB: effective for short to medium-term storage, but performance declines with frequent deep discharges, limiting reliability during prolonged low-generation periods.”

• cites [36] Casals, 2019, Second life batteries lifespan: Rest of useful life and environmental analysis, J. Environ. Manag. sourcePartly supported

  The Methods section (page not provided) models greater ageing at greater depth of discharge, and the Results and discussion section reports that aged batteries may fail to meet demand during deep discharges. The paper studies second-life batteries in stationary storage applications, but it does not establish a short-to-medium-term storage limit or examine reliability during prolonged low-generation periods. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The prior South Korean study [23] concentrated on Korean scenarios only and is missing discussion on multi-region diversity, hydrogen systems, grid-connected systems, and second-life battery impacts.

“Concentrated on Korean scenarios only; missing discussion on multi-re-gion diversity, hydro-gen systems, grid-con-nected systems, and sec-ond-life battery impacts.”

• cites [23] Ihm, J., Amghar, B., Chun, S., and Park, H. (2023). Optimum Design of an Electric Vehicle Charging Station Using a Renewable Power Generation System in South Korea. Sustainability, 15. sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract and Section 3 describe a case study at one Korean charging station, supporting the limited geographic scope. But Section 2.1.4 explicitly discusses connection to the utility grid, and the Conclusions identify PV/ESS/Grid as the optimal configuration, so the claim that grid-connected systems are missing is incorrect. The Introduction also mentions hydrogen systems in its review of other studies, though the paper does not analyze them as part of its own case study. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The proposed system fully eliminates operational emissions, avoiding 45.99 to 91.99 tons of CO2 per year compared to grid-based charging.

“The proposed system fully eliminates operational emissions, avoiding 45.99 to 91.99 tons of CO2 per year, compared to grid-based charging supporting national climate action policies and sustainable land-use planning for remote and Indigenous communities.”

May combine two claims.

Windsor, Ontario has a net-present cost of $2.80 million and cost of energy of $0.201/kWh.

“Windsor shows a net-present cost of $2.80 million and cost of energy of $0.201/kWh”

May combine two claims.

HOMER Pro shifts the Eagle Plains system toward greater fuel cell utilization and more frequent electrolyzer operation during excess generation.

“As a result, HOMER Pro shifts the system toward greater fuel cell utilization and more frequent operation of the electrolyzer during periods of excess generation.”

May combine two claims.

In 15 years of use, a default end-of-life SLB degrades to 53% capacity, 1550 cycles, and 67.1% round-trip efficiency.

“our findings show that in 15 years of use, the battery will degrade to 53% capacity, 1550 cycles, and 67.1% round-trip efficiency”

The quote only partly states this claim.

The hydrogen subsystem contributes a larger share to total system costs in Eagle Plains than in Windsor.

“This difference significantly affects COE and NPC, with the hydrogen subsystem contributing a larger share to total system costs in Eagle Plains.”

May combine two claims.

Eagle Plains, Yukon has a net-present cost of $3.61 million and cost of energy of $0.259/kWh.

“Eagle Plains, with a net-present cost of $3.61 million and cost of energy of $0.259/kWh”

May combine two claims.

For the optimized off-grid hybrid system at Eagle Plains, the net present cost is $3.61 million, the cost of energy is $0.259/kWh, the capital cost is $2.39 million, the operating cost is $77,714/year, and annual energy production is 1,329,709 kWh/year.

“| Eagle Plains | 3.61 | 0.259 | 2.39 | 77,714 | 1,329,709 |”

May combine two claims.

In Eagle Plains, the fuel cell becomes a major energy supplier during prolonged low renewable periods, and hydrogen demand increases due to reduced PV and wind availability.

“Eagle Plains: The fuel cell becomes a major energy supplier during prolonged low renewable periods.Hydrogen demand increases due to reduced PV and wind availability.”

May combine two claims.

For the optimized off-grid hybrid system at Windsor, the net present cost is $2.80 million, the cost of energy is $0.201/kWh, the capital cost is $1.92 million, the operating cost is $56,067/year, and annual energy production is 1,315,038 kWh/year.

“| Windsor | 2.80 | 0.201 | 1.92 | 56,067 | 1,315,038 |”

May combine two claims.

Annual energy production by source is: at Windsor 771,436 kWh/year from solar PV, 412,240 kWh/year from wind turbine and 131,362 kWh/year from fuel cell (total 1,315,038 kWh/year); at Eagle Plains 318,515 kWh/year from solar PV, 769,913 kWh/year from wind turbine and 241,281 kWh/year from fuel cell (total 1,329,709 kWh/year).

“| Solar PV | (kWh/yr) | 771,436 | 318,515 |”

• Also stated in: § 8. Conclusions · plain

  “| Wind Turbine | (kWh/yr) | 412,240 | 769,913 |”

• Also stated in: § 8. Conclusions · plain

  “| Total | (kWh/yr) | 1,315,038 | 1,329,709 |”

May combine two claims.

Sensitivity analyses confirmed that system economics and performance are most affected by wind turbine hub height, PV lifetime, hydrogen fuel cost, temperature, SLB degradation, electrolyzer efficiency, and EV load demand, while battery SOC limits and discount rates also have notable impacts.

“Sensitivity analyses confirmed that system economics and performance are most affected by wind turbine hub height, PV lifetime, hydrogen fuel cost, temperature, SLB degradation, electrolyzer efficiency, and EV load demand, while battery SOC limits and discount rates also have notable impacts.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The peak EV arrival rate at the proposed charging station is 5.990 EVs per hour.

“The arrival rate to the charging station is assumed Poisson distributed and roughly estimated from the datapoints obtained from the city of Windsor; this rate is equal to 5.990 EV per hour, or the highest value shown in Table 6 below.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The highest observed arrival rate from five days of Windsor data is representative of peak EV arrival at the proposed charging station.

May combine two claims.

The optimized component sizes are: at Windsor 350 kW solar PV, 100 kW wind turbine, 100 kW fuel cell, 100 kW electrolyzer, 319 kW converter, 100 kg hydrogen tank and 400 kWh energy storage; at Eagle Plains 430 kW solar PV, 200 kW wind turbine, 250 kW fuel cell, 350 kW electrolyzer, 363 kW converter, 350 kg hydrogen tank and 1000 kWh energy storage.

“| Solar PV | kW | 350 | 430 |”

• Also stated in: § 8. Conclusions · plain

  “| Wind Turbine | kW | 100 | 200 |”

• Also stated in: § 8. Conclusions · plain

  “| Energy Storage System | kWh | 400 | 1000 |”

May combine two claims.

In Windsor, hydrogen functions primarily as a seasonal buffer and supplementary storage, and fuel cell operation is used for peak shaving rather than continuous supply.

“Windsor: Hydrogen functions primarily as a seasonal buffer and supplementary storage.Fuel cell operation is used for peak shaving rather than continuous supply.”

May combine two claims.

With 4 chargers, the M/M/C queue system satisfies stability and yields an average waiting time of approximately 4.27 min, below the 10-min target.

“system stability condition (ρ = λ/(Cμ) < 1) is satisfied with C = 4 chargers, resulting in an average waiting time of approximately 4.27 min, well below the target threshold of 10 min.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: EV arrivals at the charging station follow a Poisson distribution.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: EV charging/service times are exponentially distributed.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Eagle Plains shows lower renewable penetration because both solar and wind resources are weaker, and winters impose long periods of low irradiance.

“Eagle Plains: shows lower renewable penetration because both solar and wind resources are weaker, and winters impose long periods of low irradiance.”

May combine two claims.

In the economic assessment of system component sizing for Eagle Plains, the net present cost is $0.81 million, the cost of energy is $0.058/kWh, the capital cost is $0.47 million, the operating cost is $21,647, and annual energy production is 1,329,709 kWh/year.

“| Eagle Plains | 0.81 | 0.058 | 0.47 | 21,647 | 1,329,709 |”

May combine two claims.

Increasing wind turbine hub height from 31.8 m (Case 1) to 50 m (Case 3) improves wind capture, lowering NPC from $2.86 million to $2.83 million, COE from $0.205 to $0.203/kWh, and OPEX from $59,392/year to $57,674/year.

“Wind Turbine Hub Height: increasing hub height from 31.8 m (Case 1) to 50 m (Case 3) improves wind capture, lowering NPC from $2.86 million to $2.83 million, COE from $0.205 to $0.203/kWh, and OPEX from $59,392/year to $57,674/year.”

May combine two claims.

Estimated annual CO2 emissions and carbon tax are 45.99 tons and $4369 for Windsor (Ontario, grid emission factor 35 g CO2/kWh) and 91.99 tons and $8739 for Eagle Plains (Yukon Territories, grid emission factor 70 g CO2/kWh), for an annual energy demand of 1,310,761 kWh.

“| Windsor | Ontario | 35 | 1,310,761 | 45.99 | 4369 |”

• Also stated in: § 8. Conclusions · plain

  “| Eagle Plains | Yukon Territo-ries | 70 | 1,310,761 | 91.99 | 8739 |”

May combine two claims.

Recoverable materials from second-life batteries are 46.4 kg cobalt, 160 kg nickel and 29.2 kg lithium at Windsor, and 116 kg cobalt, 400 kg nickel and 73 kg lithium at Eagle Plains.

“| Windsor | 400 | 46.4 | 160 | 29.2 |”

• Also stated in: § 8. Conclusions · plain

  “| Eagle Plains | 1000 | 116 | 400 | 73 |”

May combine two claims.

Lowering the discount rate from 6% (Case 8) to 5% (Case 9) increases NPC to $2.91 million, while raising it to 7% (Case 10) reduces NPC to $2.71 million but increases COE to $0.215/kWh.

“Discount Rate: lowering the rate from 6% (Case 8) to 5% (Case 9) increases NPC to $2.91 million; raising it to 7% (Case 10) reduces NPC to $2.71 million but increases COE to $0.215/kWh.”

May combine two claims.

Reducing the upper battery SOC limit from 100% (Case 5) to 80% (Case 7) has negligible effect on economics (NPC $2.81 million, COE $0.202/kWh), primarily improving battery longevity.

“Battery SOC Limits: reducing upper SOC from 100% (Case 5) to 80% (Case 7) has negligible effect on economics (NPC $2.81 million, COE $0.202/kWh), primarily improving battery longevity.”

May combine two claims.

Ambient temperature shifts (-10 °C or +30 °C in Cases 17 and 18) change NPC to $2.55 million and COE to $0.183/kWh relative to baseline, with operating costs of $56,115/year.

“Ambient temperature: temperature shifts (-10 °C or +30 °C in Cases 17 and 18) change NPC of $2.55 million and COE of $0.183/kWh relative to baseline, indicating that extreme climates meaningfully affect component performance and operating costs by $56,115/year.”

May combine two claims.

Reducing annual EV load demand from 3800 kWh (Case 14) to 3400 kWh (Case 13) lowers NPC from $3.26 million to $3.10 million and OPEX from $84,319/year to $75,082/year, while COE increases from $0.216 to $0.242/kWh.

“EV Load Demand: reducing annual demand from 3800 kWh (Case 14) to 3400 kWh (Case 13) lowers NPC from $3.26 million to $3.10 M, OPEX from $84,319/year to $75,082/year, while COE increases from $0.216 to $0.242/kWh.”

May combine two claims.

Second-life battery integration yields greenhouse gas emission savings of 78 tons at Windsor (400 kWh ESS, 6 SLBs) and 208 tons at Eagle Plains (1000 kWh ESS, 16 SLBs).

“| Windsor | 400 | 6 | 78 |”

• Also stated in: § 8. Conclusions · plain

  “| Eagle Plains | 1000 | 16 | 208 |”

May combine two claims.

Extending solar PV lifetime from 20 years (Case 2) to 25 years (Case 6) reduces NPC from $2.85 million to $2.80 million, COE from $0.204 to $0.201/kWh, and OPEX from $58,938/year to $56,067/year.

“Solar PV Lifetime: extending PV lifetime from 20 years (Case 2) to 25 years (Case 6) reduces NPC from $2.85 million to $2.80 million, COE from $0.204 to $0.201/kWh, and OPEX from $58,938/year to $56,067/year.”

May combine two claims.

The proposed Canadian hybrid system (PV/WT/Battery/FC/Elz/HT) achieves a COE of $0.201-0.259/kWh and an NPC of $2.80-3.61 million.

“The system achieves a COE of $0.201-0.259/kWhand NPC of $2.80-3.61million, reflecting economic viability under Canadian conditions.”

• Also stated in: § Additional information · plain

  “| This Study | | Canada | PV/WT/Battery/FC/Elz/HT | 0.201-0.259 | 2.80-3.61 |”

May combine two claims.

Introducing hydrogen fuel costs raises NPC and COE: at $0.10/kg (Case 11) NPC = $2.88 million and COE = $0.207/kWh; at $0.50/kg (Case 12) NPC = $3.18 million, COE = $0.228/kWh and OPEX = $79,571/year.

“Hydrogen Fuel Cost: introducing hydrogen costs raises NPC and COE.At $0.10/kg (Case 11), NPC = $2.88 million, COE = $0.207/kWh;at $0.50/kg (Case 12), NPC = $3.18 million, COE = $0.228/kWh,OPEX = $79,571/year.”

May combine two claims.

Integrating multiple renewable energy sources with an energy storage system improves performance and ensures a reliable energy supply.

“Integrating multiple RES with an energy storage system (ESS) improves performance and ensures a reliable energy supply [3].”

• cites [3] Akram, M.N., and Abdul-Kader, W. (2025). Supporting Sustainable Development Goals with Second-Life Electric Vehicle Battery: A Case Study. Sustainability, 17. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Remote and northern regions of Canada pose unique challenges for off-grid EV charging due to lack of grid access, harsh sub-zero climates, limited winter solar resources, and high logistical costs.

“Remote and northern regions of Canada pose unique challenges for off-grid EV charging due to lack of grid access, harsh sub-zero climates, limited winter solar resources, and high logistical costs [12].”

• cites [12] (2025, September 19). Environment Yukon. The Dempster Highway Travelogue. Available online: https://yukon.ca/sites/default/files/env/env-dempster-highway-travelogue.pdf.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The imported climatic datasets were checked within HOMER's resource interface to ensure completeness and internal consistency.

“The imported datasets were then checked within HOMER's resource interface to ensure completeness and internal consistency, ensuring an accurate representation of local climatic conditions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

All equations used in this study are taken directly from established literature and manufacturer specifications, not from HOMER's internal algorithms, ensuring transparency and reproducibility.

“All equations used in this study are taken directly from the established literature and manufacturer specifications, not from HOMER's internal algorithms, ensuring transparency and reproducibility.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Existing studies on RE-based EV charging systems primarily focus on techno-economic optimization, often overlooking lifecycle emissions, SLB integration, material recovery, carbon policy impacts, and realistic load modeling based on actual traffic and charging data.

“Existing studies on RE-based EV charging systems primarily focus on techno-economic optimization, often overlooking lifecycle emissions, SLB integration, material recovery, carbon policy impacts, and realistic load modeling based on actual traffic and charging data.”

May combine two claims.

In Windsor, higher solar irradiance and wind speed enable solar PV and wind turbines to dominate energy production, reducing reliance on backup systems.

“In Windsor, higher solar irradiance (3.82 kWh/m 2 /day) and wind speed (7.0 m/s) enable solar PV and wind turbines to dominate energy production, reducing reliance on backup systems such as fuel cells, electrolyzers, and energy storage.”

May combine two claims.

Battery-only systems are suitable for short-term storage with lower initial cost but limited lifespan and reduced reliability under deep cycling.

“Battery-only systems are suitable for short-term storage with lower initial cost but limited lifespan and reduced reliability under deep cycling.”

May combine two claims.

Hydrogen-only systems provide long-term, scalable, and reliable off-grid energy but have higher costs and lower efficiency.

“Hydrogen-only systems provide long-term, scalable, and reliable off-grid energy but have higher costs and lower efficiency.”

May combine two claims.

Windsor's favorable conditions enable smaller, efficient configurations, while Eagle Plains requires larger capacities for reliability.

“Windsor's favorable conditions enable smaller, efficient configurations, while Eagle Plains requires larger capacities for reliability.”

May combine two claims.

Hydrogen storage and electrolyzer performance decline in cold conditions, requiring insulation or heating to maintain operability.

“Hydrogen storage and electrolyzer performance decline in cold conditions, requiring insulation or heating to maintain operability [39].”

• cites [39] Kaviani, 2009, Optimal design of a reliable hydrogen-based stand-alone wind/PV generating system, considering component outages, Renew. Energy sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The quantity of material that can be recovered from LIBs is 116 g/kWh Cobalt, 400 g/kWh Nickel, and 73 g/kWh Lithium.

“The quantity of material that can be recovered is 116 g/kWh Cobalt, 400 g /kWh Nickel, and 73 g /kWh Lithium [61].”

• cites [61] Akram, 2021, Electric vehicle battery state changes and reverse logistics considerations, Int. J. Sustain. Eng. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

HOMER Pro dynamic modeling provides a realistic representation compared to monthly or annual average-based methods.

“This dynamic modeling provides a realistic representation compared to monthly or annual average-based methods.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A DC fast charger can recharge an EV battery from 10% to 80% in approximately 20-30 min.

“To charge an EV, a DC fast charger is highly effective, capable of recharging the battery from 10% to 80% in approximately 20-30 min [55].”

• cites [55] Muttaqi, 2023, Fast and random charging of electric vehicles and its impacts: State-of-the-art technologies and case studies, Electr. Power Syst. Res. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Existing studies rarely consider regional climatic variations affecting system performance in urban and remote areas.

“They also rarely consider regional climatic variations affecting system performance in urban and remote areas.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

All values in the cost assessment are justified based on current literature and market data, and critical assumptions such as component lifetimes, maintenance requirements, and usage patterns are explicitly considered.

“All values are justified based on the current literature and market data, and critical assumptions such as component lifetimes, maintenance requirements, and usage patterns are explicitly considered.”

May combine two claims.

Hydrogen has higher upfront costs but longer lifespan (20-25 years) and low degradation, with lower long-term operational costs for continuous energy availability despite lower round-trip efficiency (40-60%).

“Hydrogen: higher upfront costs but longer lifespan (20-25 years) and low degradation; lower long-term operational costs for continuous energy availability despite lower round-trip efficiency (40-60%) [39].”

• cites [39] Kaviani, 2009, Optimal design of a reliable hydrogen-based stand-alone wind/PV generating system, considering component outages, Renew. Energy sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Hydrogen is suitable for long-duration storage, capable of covering energy needs for days or weeks, particularly useful when renewable generation is seasonal.

“Hydrogen: suitable for long-duration storage, capable of covering energy needs for days or weeks, particularly useful when renewable generation is seasonal.”

• cites [39] Kaviani, 2009, Optimal design of a reliable hydrogen-based stand-alone wind/PV generating system, considering component outages, Renew. Energy sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

All economic equations are drawn from widely recognized energy systems literature, and cost parameters were sourced from peer-reviewed studies and manufacturer data to ensure realistic estimates.

“All economic equations are drawn from the widely recognized energy systems literature, and cost parameters were sourced from peer-reviewed studies and manufacturer data to ensure realistic estimates.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The analysis relies on HOMER Pro simulations that use simplified assumptions for component performance and load behavior.

“The analysis relies on HOMER Pro simulations that use simplified assumptions for component performance and load behavior.”

May combine two claims.

In Canada, two pricing models are commonly used: time-based pricing ($0.27-$0.60 per minute) and energy-based pricing ($0.60-$0.70 per kWh).

“In Canada, two pricing models are commonly used: time-based pricing ($0.27-$0.60 per minute) and energy-based pricing ($0.60-$0.70 per kWh) [59].”

• cites [59] John, D. (2025, October 16). Electrify Canada Switches to kWh Billing. Available online: https://driveteslacanada.ca/news/electrify-canada-switches-to-kwh-billing/.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Battery behavior is strongly influenced by climate and SOC limits (20-75%), making the hydrogen subsystem essential for energy shifting.

“Battery behavior is strongly influenced by climate and SOC limits (20-75%), making the hydrogen subsystem essential for energy shifting.”

May combine two claims.

Adopting a 100% renewable energy-based charging system can completely eliminate operational CO2 emissions and related carbon tax costs.

“Adopting a 100% renewable energy-based charging system can completely eliminate these emissions and related costs, demonstrating strong contributions toward SDG 13 (Climate Action).”

May combine two claims.

PV modules benefit from lower temperatures, but reduced sunlight, snow cover, and ice accumulation limit energy generation.

“PV modules benefit from lower temperatures, but reduced sunlight, snow cover, and ice accumulation limit energy generation”

• cites [41] Yassine, A.A.H., Khoshbakhtnejad, E., and Sojoudi, H. (2024). Economics of Snow Accumulation on Photovoltaic Modules. Energies, 17. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [42] Kang, 2014, Development of a simple analytical model to quantify the PV module cost premium associated with module efficiency and cell technology, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Regional grid emission factors are 35 g CO2/kWh for Ontario and 70 g CO2/kWh for Yukon Territories.

“Regional grid emission factors of 35 g CO2/kWh (Ontario), and 70 g CO2/kWh (Yukon Territories) were adopted based on data from the Canada Energy Regulator (2024) [62].”

• cites [62] Canada Energy Regulator (2025, February 20). Provincial and Territorial Energy Profiles Qubec. Available online: https://www.cer-rec.gc.ca/en/data-analysis/energy-markets/provincial-territorial-energy-profiles/provincial-territorial-energy-profiles-quebec.html.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The quote only partly states this claim.

In Eagle Plains, icing increases wind turbine losses.

“increased wind turbine losses due to icing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The proposed systems contribute directly to SDG 7, SDG 9, and SDG 13.

“The proposed systems contribute directly to SDG 7 (Affordable and Clean Energy), SDG 9 (Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure), and SDG 13 (Climate Action), providing a viable model for renewable, off-grid EV charging infrastructure in both urban and remote Canadian regions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Meteorological and traffic data were site specific and may not capture full inter-annual variability or extreme conditions.

“Meteorological and traffic data were site specific and may not capture full inter-annual variability or extreme conditions.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The battery capacity of mid-size EV models such as Hyundai Kona, Kia Niro, and Kia Soul is 64 kWh.

“Battery capacity: 64 kWh, consistent with mid-size EV models such as Hyundai Kona, Kia Niro, and Kia Soul [58].”

• cites [58] (2025, October 12). Electric Vehicle Database. All Electric Vehicle. Available online: https://ev-database.org/?utm.Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The feasibility and scalability of the proposed systems, especially in remote northern regions, should be viewed as indicative rather than definitive.

“As a result, the feasibility and scalability of the proposed systems, especially in remote northern regions, should be viewed as indicative rather than definitive.”

May combine two claims.

The prior Malaysian study [28] explored economics but did not evaluate detailed feasibility analysis and lacked SDG-focused evaluation.

“Explored economics but did not evaluate de-tailed feasibility analy-sis and lacked SDG-fo-cused evaluation.”

• cites [28] Roslan, 2024, Techno-economic impact analysis for renewable energy-based hydrogen storage integrated grid electric vehicle charging stations in different potential locations of Malaysia, Energy Strat. Rev. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The proposed system's cost of energy of $0.201-0.259/kWh and net present cost of $2.80-3.61 million reflect economic viability under Canadian conditions.

“The system achieves a COE of $0.201-0.259/kWhand NPC of $2.80-3.61million, reflecting economic viability under Canadian conditions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The prior Australian study [27] compared Australian sites but omitted EV-specific load profiles and policy guidance for remote areas.

“Compared Australian sites but omitted EV-specific load profiles and policy guidance for remote areas.”

• cites [27] Abdin, 2024, Feasibility of hydrogen hybrid energy systems for sustainable on- and off-grid integration: An Australian REZs case study, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The proposed system balances cost, reliability and sustainability, with multi-source renewable energy and hydrogen/battery storage enabling autonomous operation in both cold-climate and remote off-grid EV charging contexts, supporting Canada's clean transportation and emissions reduction goals.

“The proposed system balances cost, reliability, and sustainability, with multi-source RE and hydrogen/battery storage enabling autonomous operation in both cold climate and remote off-grid EV charging contexts, supporting Canada's clean transportation and emissions reduction goals.”