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Cited by 2Advanced Battery Technologies ResearchAdvancements in Battery MaterialsExtraction and Separation Processes

Research on Aging Evolution and Safety Characteristics of Lithium-Ion Batteries Cycling at Low Temperature

Open access
Wang, Ruiheng, Xue, Bing·2025·Batteries
DOI 10.3390/batteries11110396
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Abstract

Complex operating conditions, such as low temperature, can affect the degradation and safety stability of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). This paper conducts research on the aging evolution and safety characteristics of LIBs under low-temperature conditions (−20 °C), to reveal the change laws of battery degradation and the trends of thermal parameters of aging LIBs. Cycling and charging/discharging experiments under low temperatures were conducted to collect realistic battery data. Various factors such as temperature, cycle number, charging/discharging rate, and depth of discharge/charge (DOD/DOC) are taken into consideration to test the battery cycling and thermal performance. With collected experimental results, basic electrical states of LIBs such as open-circuit voltage (OCV), internal resistance, and capacity are presented. Then, the capacity loss and internal resistance growth are also described and analyzed under various charge/discharge rates and DODs/DOCs. The experimental results show that low temperatures cause an almost 30% increase in polarization resistance, with nonlinear changes in total internal resistance. Moreover, the battery capacity and internal resistance also have extreme points with different charge/discharge rates under −20 °C, which may demonstrate that the charge/discharge rates of LIBs can be optimized under low temperature. Thermal runaway (TR) experiments were also conducted, and the self-heating rate and other indices are presented to show that an aging battery under low temperature still holds large energy to develop TR. The aging trends of LIBs under low temperatures are summarized, and battery safety is clarified to provide a reference for battery lifetime and safety management under low-temperature conditions.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper experimentally studies aging and safety of commercial 18650 lithium-ion cells cycled at low temperature, especially -20 °C, across varied rates and DOD/DOC windows. It reports accelerated capacity loss, nonlinear internal-resistance growth, and thermal runaway behavior showing aged low-temperature cells can still retain substantial energy.

Key findings

  • At -20 °C, fresh cells had ohmic, polarization, and total resistances of 109.0 mΩ, 44.2 mΩ, and 153.3 mΩ, respectively, which were 5.6, 3.3, and 4.7 times higher than at 25 °C; polarization resistance of a 150-cycle-aged cell at -20 °C reached 5.7 times its 25 °C value. After 150 cycles, polarization resistance grew by 28.9% at -20 °C versus 13.5% at 25 °C, while total resistance growth peaked at -10 °C at 20.8%.
  • Capacity degradation accelerated at low temperature: after 150 cycles, 83.3% capacity was retained at 25 °C versus 74.2% at -20 °C. At -20 °C, the initial discharge voltage fell from 3.06 V at cycle 1 to 2.95 V at cycle 25 and 2.56 V at cycle 150, a 500 mV reduction.
  • Rate effects were non-monotonic: at -20 °C, 3 C charge/discharge after 25 cycles yielded 2396.9 mAh charged (85.7% of initial) and 2389.3 mAh discharged (87.0% retention). Higher rates slowed degradation between 0.33 C and 0.50 C discharge but accelerated it above 0.50 C; charging at 1–1.5 C reduced degradation due to internal heating.
  • DOD/DOC strongly affected degradation: initial capacities at cycle 2 were 1096.8 mAh (3.80 V), 1726.5 mAh (4.00 V), 2027.4 mAh (4.10 V), and 2365.4 mAh (4.20 V); after 150 cycles they fell to 1073.9, 1624.9, 1753.4, and 1950.6 mAh, representing 2.1%, 5.9%, 13.5%, and 17.5% reductions. Thermal runaway tests showed a 150-cycle-aged fully charged cell still reached T3 = 614.225 °C and dT/dt = 349.147 °C/s, similar to fresh cells.

Methods

  • Commercial cylindrical 18650 Sony US18650VTC6 NCM cells (rated 3000 mAh, 3.6 V) were used; 100 cells from the same production batch were screened to control capacity variation within 10 mAh.
  • Cycling tests used a low-temperature chamber (-20 °C), CC-CV charging at 3 C to 4.2 V then CV to 0.05 C, and 3 C discharge to 2.5 V; cells were aged to 0, 15, 25, 50, 75, 100, 125, and 150 cycles. Additional protocols varied charge/discharge rates (0.33–3.00 C), temperatures (-20 to 25 °C), and DOD/DOC voltage windows.
  • Internal resistance was measured by HPPC every 10% SOC (10 s 1 C discharge, 40 s rest, 10 s 0.75 C charge), and thermal runaway was tested by ARC Heat-Wait-Search with initial 40 °C, 5 °C increments, maximum search 350 °C, and T1/T2/T3 criteria.

Limitations

  • The paper states that it mainly analyzes experimental results; simulations with various indices under low temperature for different LIB types can be further investigated, and inner electrochemical reactions and degradation mechanisms can be analyzed at low temperature.
  • The authors state future work can add mechanism/material analyses such as SEM and XPS, and thermal monitoring of cell surface temperature to further support internal heating effects.
  • Evident from the text: the study uses a single commercial 18650 NCM cell type from one production batch, so generalization to other chemistries, formats, or batches is not established; testing is limited to 150 cycles and specific protocols, with no simulation or detailed post-mortem material characterization.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/batteries11110396

Cites

32 of 32 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

2 of 9 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Charging or discharging with a large current rate at low temperature brings severe polarization and solid electrolyte interphase growth to the battery.

    “because a large current brings severe polarization and solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) growth to the battery [29][30][31][32].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [29] Kumar, 2024, Impact of fast charging and low-temperature cycling on lithium-ion battery health: A comparative analysis, J. Energy Storage source
    • cites [30] Guo, 2023, Insight into fast charging/discharging aging mechanism and degradation-safety analytics of 18650 lithium-ion batteries, J. Energy Storage source
    • cites [31] Gao, Z., Xie, H., Yang, X., Niu, W., Li, S., and Chen, S. (2022). The dilemma of c-rate and cycle life for lithium-ion batteries under low temperature fast charging. Batteries, 8. source

      The Introduction states that high charging C-rates cause large anode polarization, supporting that part of the claim. Section 3.1 instead attributes low-temperature, high-rate degradation mainly to lithium plating; it says SEI growth is not significantly responsive to charging rate and can be inhibited under very low-temperature conditions. The paper’s cited findings concern charging, not discharging. (LLM, conf=0.89)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Findingreasoning

    Capacity degradation is not linearly related to the charge rate or discharge rate.

    “However, the capacity degradation is not linearly related to the charge rate or discharge rate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    During 3 C-rate charging-discharging at -20°C, the LIB cell is charged only 2396.9 mAh after 25 aging cycles, which is 85.7% of the initial capacity.

    “As shown in Figure 9, during 3 C-rate charging-discharging at -20 • C, the LIB cell is charged only 2396.9 mAh after 25 aging cycles, which is 85.7% of the initial capacity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The initial charge/discharge capacity of LIBs at the first cycle under low-temperature conditions is abnormally high due to severe polarization, so the second-cycle capacity is a valid baseline.
  • Findingnone given

    At low temperature, higher charge rates elevate voltage plateaus and polarization severity, accelerating the capacity degradation of lithium-ion batteries.

    “At low temperature, higher charge rates elevate voltage plateaus and polarization severity, accelerating the capacity degradation of LIBs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    An aging battery under low temperature still holds large energy to develop thermal runaway.

    “an aging battery under low temperature still holds large energy to develop TR.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7
  • May combine two claims. 42

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Capacity loss and internal resistance growth are the main indices used to illustrate battery degradation.

    “Capacity loss and internal resistance growth have been considered as the main indices used to illustrate battery degradation [13,14].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13] Liu, 2023, Aging behavior and mechanisms of lithium-ion battery under multi-aging path, J. Clean. Prod. source
    • cites [14] Kim, 2023, Model-free reconstruction of capacity degradation trajectory of lithium-ion batteries using early cycle data, eTransportation source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) says battery degradation reduces capacity and increases internal resistance, supporting their use as signs of degradation. It does not identify those two as the main indices; it instead calls state of health and remaining useful life the primary indicators of battery health. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    At 0% SOC, the fresh cell has an OCV of 3.34 V, while the 150-cycle-aged cell reaches 3.66 V, a 0.32 V increase.

    “0% SOC, the fresh cell has an OCV of 3.34 V, while the 150-cycle-aged cell reaches an OCV of 3.66 V, which is a 0.32 V increase in OCV.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    With small charging currents, the battery still exhibits rapid capacity degradation, demonstrating the effect of low-temperature conditions.

    “However, with small charging currents, the battery still exhibits a rapid capacity degradation, which demonstrates the effect of low-temperature conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    When discharge rate reaches 1.50 C, increased heat generation enhances electrochemical activity, yielding 76.2% retention, which is a lower capacity loss than at 1 C.

    “When the discharge rate reaches 1.50 C, increased heat generation enhances electrochemical activity, yielding 76.2% retention, which is a lower capacity loss than that at 1 C.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The initial charge/discharge capacity of LIBs at the first cycle under low-temperature conditions is abnormally high due to severe polarization, so the second-cycle capacity is a valid baseline.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For ohmic resistance, when ambient temperature is above 0°C, lower temperatures affect the increase in ohmic resistance substantially, with ohmic resistance rising by 15.4% after 150 cycles at 25°C and 19.7% at 0°C.

    “For ohmic resistance, when the ambient temperature is above 0 • C, lower temperatures affect the increase in ohmic resistance substantially, with ohmic resistance rising by 15.4% after 150 cycles at 25 • C and 19.7% at 0 • C.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    After 150 cycles, lower temperatures accelerate degradation, with 83.3% capacity retained at 25°C versus 74.2% retained at -20°C.

    “It can be noted that after 150 cycles, lower temperatures accelerate degradation, with 83.3% capacity retained at 25 • C versus 74.2% retained at -20 • C.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The initial charge/discharge capacity of LIBs at the first cycle under low-temperature conditions is abnormally high due to severe polarization, so the second-cycle capacity is a valid baseline.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Charging at a C-rate of 1-1.5 reduces degradation rates of lithium-ion batteries due to beneficial internal heating, which improves electrochemical activity inside the battery.

    “Experimental results show that charging at a C-rate of 1-1.5 reduces degradation rates of LIBs due to beneficial internal heating, which improves electrochemical activity inside the battery.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Total resistance growth increases with higher charging rates in the 0.25 C-0.50 C range, reaching 6.0% at 0.25 C and 9.1% at 0.50 C after 150 cycles.

    “Total resistance growth similarly increases with higher charging rates in the 0.25 C-0.50 C range, reaching 6.0% at 0.25 C and 9.1% at 0.50 C after 150 cycles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Low temperatures cause an almost 30% increase in polarization resistance, with nonlinear changes in total internal resistance.

    “The experimental results show that low temperatures cause an almost 30% increase in polarization resistance, with nonlinear changes in total internal resistance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Higher charging rates elevate voltage plateaus and intensify polarization, resulting in accelerated capacity degradation, meaning less capacity at 3 C-rate charging than at 1.50 C after 25 cycles.

    “Higher charging rates elevate voltage plateaus and intensify polarization, resulting in accelerated capacity degradation, which means less capacity at 3 C-rate charging than that at 1.50 C after 25 cycles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Higher charging cutoff voltages increase both the constant-current phase capacity and the total charging capacity of lithium-ion batteries.

    “Higher cutoff voltages increase both constant-current phase capacity and total charging capacity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    At -20°C, fresh batteries have ohmic, polarization, and total resistances of 109.0 mΩ, 44.2 mΩ, and 153.3 mΩ, respectively, which are 5.6, 3.3, and 4.7 times higher than those at 25°C.

    “At -20 • C, fresh batteries have ohmic, polarization, and total resistances of 109.0 mΩ, 44.2 mΩ, and 153.3 mΩ, respectively, which are 5.6, 3.3, and 4.7 times higher than those at 25 • C.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Lower temperatures increase the fraction of ohmic resistance between -10°C and 45°C; excessive polarization resistance significantly raises its fraction and reduces the ohmic proportion at -20°C.

    “lower temperatures increase the fraction of ohmic resistance between -10 • C and 45 • C; however, excessive polarization resistance significantly raises its fraction and reduces the ohmic proportion at -20 • C”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    3 C-rate discharging causes severe polarization and performance deterioration, which then accelerates capacity degradation.

    “However, 3 C-rate discharging causes severe polarization and performance deterioration, which then accelerates capacity degradation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    After 150 cycles, battery capacities reduce to 1073.9 mAh, 1624.9 mAh, 1753.4 mAh, and 1950.6 mAh, representing 2.1%, 5.9%, 13.5%, and 17.5% reductions, respectively.

    “After 150 cycles, battery capacities reduce to 1073.9 mAh, 1624.9 mAh, 1753.4 mAh, and 1950.6 mAh, representing 2.1%, 5.9%, 13.5%, and 17.5% reductions, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    At -10°C and 0% SOC, OCV is larger than 3.2 V; at -20°C and 0% SOC, OCV can be larger than 3.6 V for an aged battery (125 and 150 cycles).

    “For example, the OCV at -10 • C and 0% SOC is larger than 3.2 V, while the OCV at -20 • C and 0% SOC can be even larger than 3.6 V for an aged battery (125 cycles and 150 cycles).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Discharge/charge capacities dropped from initial 2716.1 mAh/2696.2 mAh to 88.2%/87.0% retention at -20°C, whereas at 25°C battery capacity decreased from 2923.1 mAh/2917.9 mAh to 95.2%/95.1% retention at the same 1-25 cycles.

    “the discharge/charge capacities dropped from an initial 2716.1 mAh/2696.2mAh (the charge and discharge capacity at the second cycle) to 88.2%/87.0%retention at -20 • C temperature, whereas at 25 • C temperature, battery capacity decreased from 2923.1 mAh/2917.9mAh to 95.2%/95.1% retention at the same 1-25 cycles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The initial charge/discharge capacity of LIBs at the first cycle under low-temperature conditions is abnormally high due to severe polarization, so the second-cycle capacity is a valid baseline.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Battery capacity at 0.33 C-0.66 C discharges shows similar degradation, stabilizing around 76.6% retention after 150 cycles.

    “Specifically, the battery capacity at 0.33 C-0.66 C discharges shows similar degradation, stabilizing around 76.6% retention after 150 cycles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The initial charge/discharge capacity of LIBs at the first cycle under low-temperature conditions is abnormally high due to severe polarization, so the second-cycle capacity is a valid baseline.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The thermal characteristics of fully charged cells with different aging cycles depend on the value of T2; a larger T2 causes a larger T3 and self-heating rate.

    “Moreover, the thermal characteristics of fully charged cells with different aging cycles depend on the value of T2; that is, a larger T2 causes a larger T3 and self-heating rate, which may demonstrate heavy thermal runaway of this cell.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A fully charged battery at 150 aging cycles still holds similar energy, reaching a high T3 value and self-heating rate during thermal runaway.

    “As shown in Table 5, the thermal runaway behavior of the battery with different aging cycles does not follow linear trends, and a fully charged battery at 150 aging cycles still holds similar energy, reaching a high T3 value and self-heating rate during thermal runaway.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    At cycle 2, initial capacities are 1096.8 mAh at 3.80 V, 1726.5 mAh at 4.00 V, 2027.4 mAh at 4.10 V, and 2365.4 mAh at 4.20 V.

    “Initial capacities at cycle 2 are measured as 1096.8mAh (3.80 V), 1726.5 mAh (4.00 V), 2027.4 mAh (4.10 V), and 2365.4 mAh (4.20 V).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Polarization resistance grows by 28.9% at -20°C and 13.5% at 25°C after 150 cycles.

    “polarization resistance grows by 28.9% at -20 • C and 13.5% at 25 • C after 150 cycles”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Internal resistance holds strong temperature dependence and increases with decreasing temperature, particularly at low temperatures.

    “Internal resistance holds strong temperature dependence, and it increases with decreasing temperature, particularly at low temperatures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Polarization resistance in aged batteries exhibits greater temperature sensitivity, increasing with aging severity.

    “Polarization resistance in aged batteries exhibits greater temperature sensitivity, increasing with aging severity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Between 0.25 C and 0.66 C charging, polarization resistance growth accelerates with increasing rates, reaching 9.1% at 0.25 C and 15.4% at 0.66 C after 150 cycles.

    “Between 0.25 C and 0.66 C charging, polarization resistance growth accelerates with increasing rates, reaching 9.1% at 0.25 C and 15.4% at 0.66 C after 150 cycles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    A 15.4% increase in resistance occurs with a higher charge rate (0.66 C), while a 9.1% increase in resistance happens with a higher discharge rate (1-1.5 C).

    “Experimental results show that a 15.4% increase in resistance occurs with a higher charge rate (0.66 C), while a 9.1% increase in resistance happens with a higher discharge rate (1-1.5 C).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Polarization resistance rises markedly (28.9% increase at -20°C) due to increased electrolyte viscosity, which impedes lithium-ion transport.

    “Polarization resistance rises markedly (28.9% increase at -20 • C) due to increased electrolyte viscosity, which impedes lithium-ion transport.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Ohmic resistance increases by about 7% when the cutoff voltage changes from 3.4 V to 2.5 V, while polarization resistance increases by about 3% when the cutoff voltage changes from 3.4 V to 2.5 V.

    “Ohmic resistance increases by about 7% when the cutoff voltage changes from 3.4 V to 2.5 V, while polarization resistance increases by about 3% when the cutoff voltage changes from 3.4 V to 2.5 V.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    At -20°C, severe capacity instability occurs, and an additional 10% capacity degradation happens compared to capacity degradation at 25°C.

    “At -20 • C, severe capacity instability occurs, and an additional 10% capacity degradation happens compared to capacity degradation at 25 • C.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Relative to the minimum after 25 cycles, ohmic resistance increases by 10.3% at 2.50 V, 8.2% at 3.00 V, 6.5% at 3.20 V, and 3.5% at 3.40 V after 150 cycles.

    “Relative to this minimum, ohmic resistance increases by 10.3% (2.50 V), 8.2% (3.00 V), 6.5% (3.20 V), and 3.5% (3.40 V) after 150 cycles, which shows that a larger DOD accelerates ohmic resistance growth.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Low ambient temperatures significantly increase ohmic resistance (12.4% increase at -20°C) due to plated lithium reacting with the electrolyte, forming thicker SEI films.

    “Due to plated lithium reacting with the electrolyte, low ambient temperatures significantly increase the ohmic resistance (12.4% increase at -20 • C) to form thicker SEI films.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Large depths of charge (DOCs) and depths of discharge (DODs) accelerate the capacity degradation of lithium-ion batteries, and this trend is linear.

    “Large DOCs and DODs accelerate the capacity degradation of LIBs, and this trend is linear.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Within the low SOC range (0% to 60%), OCV progressively rises with aging severity, while OCV exhibits almost a slight change within 60% to 100% SOC.

    “Within the low SOC range (0% to 60%), OCV progressively rises with aging severity, while OCV exhibits almost a slight change within 60% to 100% SOC.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Polarization resistance holds a linear relationship with temperature, whereas ohmic resistance does not have a similarly linear trend.

    “The polarization resistance holds a linear relationship with temperature, whereas the ohmic resistance does not have a similarly linear trend.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Lower temperatures accelerate capacity degradation and amplify initial voltage transients of lithium-ion batteries during the charge/discharge process.

    “Lower temperatures accelerate capacity degradation and amplify initial voltage transients of LIBs during the charge/discharge process.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Charging polarization forces premature constant-voltage mode initiation, and subsequent heat generation later restores constant-current charging.

    “Charging polarization forces premature constant-voltage mode initiation, and then subsequent heat generation later restores constant-current charging.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Low-temperature working conditions constantly occur in the winter season, which may limit ability and influence degradation during battery cycling.

    “Low-temperature working conditions constantly occur in the winter season, which may limit ability and influence degradation during battery cycling [25].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Shao, 2024, Advanced low-temperature preheating strategies for power lithium-ion batteries applied in electric vehicles: A review, Int. J. Electrochem. Sci. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A smaller DOD shortens cycling time, reducing polarization and particle surface stress inside lithium-ion batteries.

    “On one hand, a smaller DOD shortens cycling time, reducing polarization and particle surface stress inside LIBs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Greater self-heat generated in the period between T1 and T2, the self-heat accumulation period before thermal runaway, may explain the dependence of thermal characteristics on T2.

    “This may be due to greater self-heat generated in the period between T1 and T2, which is the self-heat accumulation period before thermal runway.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Using 100 cells from the same producer and same single production batch and selecting cells with similar capacity controlled cell-to-cell variation within 10 mAh, ensuring testing consistency.

    “To decrease the influence of cell variation, an amount of 18650 LIBs (100 cells) from the same producer and the same single production batch was applied in this study.”
    • Also stated in: § 2.1. Cell Information · plain
      “we tested the capacity of these fresh cells and selected cells with similar capacity to control the capacity variation within 10 mAh.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    During low-temperature charging, lithium-ion diffusion in graphite anodes is suppressed, and increased electrolyte viscosity reduces intercalation rates, causing lithium plating and accelerating capacity degradation.

    “During low-temperature charging, lithium-ion diffusion in graphite anodes is suppressed, and increased electrolyte viscosity reduces intercalation rates, causing lithium plating and accelerating capacity degradation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Polarization resistance dramatically increases, and high-rate discharge generates internal heat, resulting in more consumption of battery energy and less available capacity.

    “The polarization resistance dramatically increases, and high-rate discharge generates internal heat, resulting in more consumption of battery energy and less available capacity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Internal self-heat generation of lithium-ion batteries is sufficient to partially mitigate polarization and extend the constant-current phase when the cutoff voltage is at least 4.0 V.

    “However, when the cutoff voltage ≥ 4.0 V, a higher constant-current capacity can be achieved, because internal self-heat generation of LIBs is enough to partially mitigate polarization, and then the constant-current phase is extended, as shown in Figure 13.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The 7.7% polarization resistance growth for batteries cycled between 3.40 V and 4.20 V may be due to severe polarization within the narrow voltage window and insufficient relaxation time for depolarization.

    “However, batteries cycled between 3.40 V and 4.20 V exhibit 7.7% polarization resistance growth, which may be due to the severe polarization within this narrow voltage window and insufficient relaxation time for depolarization.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Due to elevated polarization resistance at low temperature, large discharge currents during deep discharge (large DOD) generate substantial inner heat, which enhances electrolyte conductivity and electrochemical activity.

    “On the other hand, due to elevated polarization resistance at low temperature, large discharge currents during deep discharge (large DOD) generate substantial inner heat, which enhances electrolyte conductivity and electrochemical activity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
45 of 45

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Voltage charging/discharging windows significantly impact lithium-ion battery performance and cycle life.

    “Voltage charging/discharging windows significantly impact lithium-ion battery performance and cycle life.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The initial charge/discharge capacity of LIBs at the first cycle under low-temperature conditions is abnormally high due to severe polarization, so the second-cycle capacity is a valid baseline.

    “Due to severe polarization under lowtemperature conditions, the initial charge/discharge capacity of LIBs at the first cycle tends to be abnormally high.Therefore, the second-cycle capacity was used as the baseline.”
2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • The temperature-aging protocol lists 45 °C instead of the reported 10 °C

    Major

    The results say cells were aged at 10 °C, but Table 3 lists 45 °C as the fifth aging temperature and has no 10 °C condition.

  • Figure 10 is described as both charging and discharge cycles

    Minor

    The results describe Figure 10a-c as charging-cycle capacity-voltage curves, while its caption calls them discharge cycles.

  • Figure 13 is described as both charging and discharge cycles

    Minor

    The results identify the Figure 13 curves as charging cycles, but the figure caption identifies the same cycles as discharge cycles.

3 of 3

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Authors
Wang, R., & Xue, B.
Affiliations
Changzhou University (CN)
Corresponding author
Xue, Bing
ORCID
Xue, Bing
Venue
Batteries
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2025-10-27
Volume
11
Issue
11
Pages
396
ISSN
2313-0105 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/batteries11110396
OpenAlex
W4415644704
Semantic Scholar
1c7edcc10ba98151b7c3e638daf77e4d778daefd
Cited by
2
References
32
Citations by year
2026: 2
FWCI
0.49
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Batteries (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Advanced Battery Technologies Research
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Advancements in Battery Materials
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Extraction and Separation Processes
Keywords
lithium-ion batteries, low-temperature cycling, battery degradation, battery safety, thermal runaway, internal resistance, capacity fade, polarization resistance, depth of discharge, charge/discharge rate, open-circuit voltage, self-heating rate

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-28.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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