Interactions between Muscle and Bone—Where Physics Meets Biology

In the paper

“After adjustment for BMD and cortical thickness, the hip fracture group was characterized by the lower relative adipose tissue volume of the upper thigh and some of the texture parameters discriminated the osteoporotic hip fracture [204].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [204] Museyko, 2019, Three-dimensional Distribution of Muscle and Adipose Tissue of the Thigh at CT: Association with Acute Hip Fracture, Radiol. source

In the paper

“Physical forces are generated through gravity, locomotion, exercise, and external devices.”

In the paper

“This may result in the initiation of bone formation, muscle hypertrophy, and the enhanced production of extracellular matrix constituents, adhesion molecules, and cytoskeletal elements.”

In the paper

“immobility and inflammation trigger muscle and bone marrow fatty infiltration”

In the paper

“Bone and muscle mass, resistance to strain, and the stiffness of matrix, cells, and tissues are enhanced, influencing fracture resistance and muscle power.”

In the paper

“The former prevail in muscle while bone strongly (but not exclusively) responds to fluid flow in the osteocyte canalicular network [9].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [9] Nachury, 2019, Establishing and regulating the composition of cilia for signal transduction, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Boil. source

In the paper

““virtually every step of cell and tissue biology depends upon mechanochemical events””

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [18] Storm, 2017, Mechanoreciprocity in cell migration, Nat.

In the paper

“The clinical result of physical impact is high bone and muscle mass, resulting in enhanced fracture resistance and muscle power (see also Figure 2A,B).”

In the paper

“Mechanical stimuli can be transmitted through deformation (stretching and compression) and/or shear strain applied by fluids that pass by.”

In the paper

“There is no doubt that external mechanical vibration may variably substitute for gravity and add up to active muscle contraction both in space missions and as dedicated types of exercise.”

In the paper

“In human myoblasts, Cav3 deficiency was associated with the hyperactivation of IL-6-STAT3 signaling (interleukin-6, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3), which is a pathway that in the presence of WT Cav3 turned out to be regulated by mechanical strain in a Cav3-dependent manner [35].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [35] Dewulf, 2019, Dystrophy-associated caveolin-3 mutations reveal that caveolae couple IL6/STAT3 signaling with mechanosensing in human muscle cells, Nat. Commun. source

In the paper

“Mechanical bending/deflection of the cilium was reported to enhance prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (PTGS2 alias COX2) expression and prostaglandin production as well as bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP 2) and osteopontin expression.”

In the paper

“Secreted proteins and signaling molecules are the basis of mutual interaction between muscle and bone both in a paracrine and also an endocrine setting.”

In the paper

“In muscle, mechanosensing is mainly transduced via deformation strains, but still, the primary cilium has been related to satellite cell self-renewal and muscle cell differentiation in mice [42].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [42] Marican, 2016, Asymmetric Distribution of Primary Cilia Allocates Satellite Cells for Self-Renewal, Stem Cell Rep. source

In the paper

“The primary cilium is a unique subcellular organelle composed of nine (+0) axonema structures (Figure 2B).”

In the paper

“In bone, the primary cilium appears to be an important mediator of gravity and consecutive osteogenic response, because in simulated microgravity, the cilium gradually shrinks and inhibition of this shrinkage using cytochalasin D maintains osteoblast differentiation capacity (reviewed in [40]).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [40] Shi, 2019, Novel functions of the primary cilium in bone disease and cancer, Cytoskelet. source

In the paper

“IGF-1 and also FGF2 are growth factors that are actively secreted at the muscle and bone interface and if delivered into the circulation may have distant effects on bone formation and remodeling.”

In the paper

“EVs may transport myokines/osteokines, miRNA, and organelles and are involved in the regeneration of both bone and muscle tissue after exercise and injury [70,71,72,73,74].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [70] Bittel, 2019, Contribution of Extracellular Vesicles in Rebuilding Injured Muscles, Front. Physiol. source
• Not checked yetcites [71] Lauritzen, 2013, Contraction and AICAR Stimulate IL-6 Vesicle Depletion From Skeletal Muscle Fibers In Vivo, Diabetes source
• Not checked yetcites [72] Morrell, 2018, Mechanically induced Ca2+ oscillations in osteocytes release extracellular vesicles and enhance bone formation, Bone Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [73] Murray, 2018, Concise Review: Intercellular Communication Via Organelle Transfer in the Biology and Therapeutic Applications of Stem Cells, STEM CELLS source
• Not checked yetcites [74] Trovato, 2019, Extracellular Vesicles: Delivery Vehicles of Myokines, Front. Physiol. source

In the paper

“Muscle cells, very much like bone, do not express the molecular components of the regulated secretory pathway (RSP), and the vesicle release upon exercise may be the relevant mechanism to deliver IL-6 into the circulation.”

In the paper

“Exercise was reported to downregulate both SOST and DKK-1 serum levels, which marks an important link between muscle and bone via physical impact [78,79].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [78] Davoodi, 2019, Improved carotid intima-media thickness-induced high-intensity interval training associated with decreased serum levels of Dkk-1 and sclerostin in type 2 diabetes, J. Diabetes its Complicat.
• Not checked yetcites [79] Picke, 2018, Differential effects of high-fat diet and exercise training on bone and energy metabolism, Bone source

In the paper

“One example is the immediate rise of muscle insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) mRNA after an exercise bout and the significant rise of peripheral blood IGF-1 protein levels after 24 h (not yet significant after 2 h) post exercise, which was gone after 48 h [75].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [75] Annibalini, 2019, Muscle and Systemic Molecular Responses to a Single Flywheel Based Iso-Inertial Training Session in Resistance-Trained Men, Front. Physiol. source

In the paper

“Small vesicles in muscle, which contain immunoreactive IL-6 and are depleted during exercise, have indeed been described in mice [71].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [71] Lauritzen, 2013, Contraction and AICAR Stimulate IL-6 Vesicle Depletion From Skeletal Muscle Fibers In Vivo, Diabetes source

In the paper

“Similarly, the Hippo pathway has gained attention as an important pathway in mechanotransduction and skeletal physiology. Downstream YAP/TAZ regulation is in fact tightly involved in mechanosensing and mechanotransduction both in bone and muscle as well as in many other cells, especially endothelial cells (see Section 3.3).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [55] Dasgupta, 2019, Control of cellular responses to mechanical cues through YAP/TAZ regulation, J. Boil. Chem. source
• Not checked yetcites [115] Meng, 2018, RAP2 mediates mechanoresponses of the Hippo pathway, Nat. source
• Not checked yetcites [116] Xiang, 2018, The versatile hippo pathway in oral-maxillofacial development and bone remodeling, Dev. Boil. source

In the paper

“In conclusion, there is convincing evidence that during development, the interaction between physics and biology is boosted by EMT and the acquisition of migratory capacity, and every step of interaction causes and supports biological consequences in terms of lineage commitment and maturation.”

In the paper

“Irisin, a cleaved product of fibronectin type III domain containing (FNDC5) with stimulating effects on bone formation, is also delivered from muscle into the circulation after exercise but may have a dual mode of delivery, shedding of preformed polypeptides and de novo synthesis [81].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [81] Li, 2019, Muscle-bone crosstalk and potential therapies for sarco-osteoporosis, J. Cell. Biochem. source

In the paper

“Above all, the PTH1R signaling cascade is especially sensitive to mechanical loading. Anabolic PTH1R signals elicited through bone anabolic treatment using intermittent 1-34 PTH (teriparatide) are almost ineffective under conditions of unloading [113].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [113] Tu, 2016, Control of Bone Anabolism in Response to Mechanical Loading and PTH by Distinct Mechanisms Downstream of the PTH Receptor, J. Bone Miner. Res.

In the paper

“TSP-4 is expressed in muscle and bone, has different functions compared to TSP-1 (antiangiogenic), and recently has been assigned to angiogenesis and matrix remodeling [94].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [94] Stenina-Adognravi, O., and Plow, E.F. (2019). Thrombospondin-4 in tissue remodeling. Matrix Boil., 300–313. source

In the paper

“Joint structures as important features of the musculoskeletal functional unit develop under the influence of respective core signaling cascades of osteogenic, chondrogenic, and ligamentogenic pathways. This process is fundamentally influenced by mechanical forces already in utero, directed by movement of the fetus [45,101].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [45] Mammoto, 2013, Mechanobiology and Developmental Control, Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Boil. source
• Not checked yetcites [101] Chijimatsu, 2019, Mechanisms of synovial joint and articular cartilage development, Cell. Mol. Life Sci. source

In the paper

“These data demonstrate that there are genes whose expression is relevant for tissue formation in both bone and muscle, and others cause antagonistic effects in the brother tissues.”

In the paper

“Notch signaling has also been reported to be involved in skeletal physiology. We and others recently reported that this pathway is mechanosensitive in skeletal precursors [58,114].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [58] Ziouti, F., Ebert, R., Rummler, M., Krug, M., Müller-Deubert, S., Lüdemann, M., Jakob, F., Willie, B.M., and Jundt, F. (2019). NOTCH Signaling Is Activated through Mechanical Strain in Human Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells. Stem Cells Int., 2019. source
• Not checked yetcites [114] Canalis, 2018, Notch in skeletal physiology and disease, Osteoporos. Int. source

In the paper

“Interestingly, the early genes such as proinflammatory cytokines IL-1b, IL-6, IL-8, the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) ligands serum amyloid A1 (SAA1) and SAA2, CYR61/CCN1, connective tissue growth factor (CTGF/CCN2), angiopoietin-like 4 (ANGPTL4) and ANGPTL2 very closely resemble genes that are also relevant in the initial phase of osteogenic differentiation and contribute to angiogenesis in fract”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [91] Ebert, 2015, Acute phase serum amyloid A induces proinflammatory cytokines and mineralization via toll-like receptor 4 in mesenchymal stem cells, Stem Cell Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [92] Loi, 2016, Inflammation, fracture and bone repair, Bone source
• Not checked yetcites [93] Sass, F.A., Fuchs, M., Pumberger, M., Geissler, S., Duda, G.N., Perka, C., and Schmidt-Bleek, K. (2018). Immunology Guides Skeletal Muscle Regeneration. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19. source

In the paper

“The lists of muscle-related transcripts and secreted proteins comprised 149 proteins of unassigned functions as putative interactors with other tissues and 123 transcripts that corresponded to putative myokines including BMPs, chemokines, cytokines, growth/differentiation factors (GDFs), and members of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family of secreted proteins and ligands for Wnt signaling (Suppl”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [90] Zhang, 2018, Transcriptional profiling reveals extraordinary diversity among skeletal muscle tissues, eLife source

In the paper

“Bone formation and bone resorption are both part of the adaptive refinement and remodeling processes, which are mechanically guided and where both osteoblasts and osteoclasts respond to physical forces [117,118].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [117] Amarasekara, D.S., Yun, H., Kim, S., Lee, N., Kim, H., and Rho, J. (2018). Regulation of Osteoclast Differentiation by Cytokine Networks. Immune Netw., 18. source
• Not checked yetcites [118] Ma, 2019, The role of physical forces in osteoclastogenesis, J. Cell. Physiol. source

In the paper

“However, there are some other populations that substantially contribute to regeneration such as the Sca1+/CD34+ fibro-adipogenic progenitors (FAPs) residing in the muscle interstitium. Following injury, satellite cells re-enter the cell cycle and proliferate to give rise to myoblasts that differentiate and fuse to restore the damaged fiber or generate myofibers de novo, while FAPs support their”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [131] Baghdadi, 2018, Regulation and phylogeny of skeletal muscle regeneration, Dev. Boil. source

In the paper

“Very much in analogy with bone and probably many other tissues, the initial phase of regeneration is governed by intrinsic inflammatory signals and is further induced by cells of the innate immune system, e.g. sequentially recruited neutrophils and resident macrophages. Cytokines already known from bone regeneration such as IL-1, 6, and 8 are involved in innate immune cell recruitment until the”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [132] Dort, J., Fabre, P., Molina, T., and Dumont, N.A. (2019). Macrophages Are Key Regulators of Stem Cells during Skeletal Muscle Regeneration and Diseases. Stem Cells Int., 2019. source
• Not checked yetcites [133] Mukund, 2019, Skeletal muscle: A review of molecular structure and function, in health and disease, Wiley Interdiscip. Rev. Syst. Boil. Med. source

In the paper

“Both Pax7-deficient and satellite cell-deficient mice fail to regenerate muscle [131].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [131] Baghdadi, 2018, Regulation and phylogeny of skeletal muscle regeneration, Dev. Boil. source

In the paper

“Not only is this condition in common for regenerating tissues in the early phase, but it also somehow mimics the senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) of presenescent and senescent cells. It appears to be beneficial if intermittent, but it causes pathology if chronically active.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [109] Czarkwiani, 2018, Out with the old, in with the new: senescence in development, Curr. Opin. Cell Boil. source
• Not checked yetcites [125] Farr, 2019, Cellular senescence in bone, Bone source
• Not checked yetcites [126] He, 2017, Senescence in Health and Disease, Cell source
• Not checked yetcites [127] Rhinn, 2019, Cellular senescence in development, regeneration and disease, Dev. source

In the paper

“Satellite stem cell development in addition to Pax3 expression is largely dependent on the expression of Pax7 in the pre- and perinatal periods and modulated by mechanical strain [32].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [32] Jin, 2019, Physicochemical Niche Conditions and Mechanosensing by Osteocytes and Myocytes, Curr. Osteoporos. Rep. source

In the paper

“In case of bone, we and others have recently reported that there are no significant associations to epigenetic marks or aging associated DNA signatures in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in age-related osteoporosis, while others claim to see such associations, and the debate is ongoing [159,160,161].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [159] Riancho, 2018, Epigenetics of Skeletal Diseases, Curr. Osteoporos. Rep. source
• Not checked yetcites [160] Eipel, 2017, Primary Osteoporosis Is Not Reflected by Disease-Specific DNA Methylation or Accelerated Epigenetic Age in Blood, J. Bone Miner. Res.
• Not checked yetcites [161] Jakob, 2018, Response to Letter to the Editor: Epigenetic Aging in Osteoporosis, J. Bone Miner. Res. source

In the paper

“In conclusion, there are basically two systems to mutually communicate between muscle and bone where physics and biochemistry meet. Physical forces exerted by physical load, muscle activity (contraction and relaxation), and fluid flow are translated into biochemical signals and the biology of cells and tissues. The primary biological response to physical cues changes the receiving biological”

In the paper

“muscle satellite cells attract and cross-talk with EC via vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) secretion, while the EC-derived Notch ligand Dll4 causes muscle stem cell quiescence and creates a vascular niche [151].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [151] Verma, 2018, Muscle Satellite Cell Cross-Talk with a Vascular Niche Maintains Quiescence via VEGF and Notch Signaling, Cell Stem Cell source

In the paper

“When focusing on muscle and bone, the most obvious mechanisms that trigger diseases in both compartments are unloading and chronic inflammation, which will be discussed in the following sections for translational perspectives.”

In the paper

“In addition, evidence showed that macrophage PPARƴ (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ) expression controls the delivery of growth differentiation factor-3 (GDF3) and is almost essential for muscle regeneration [139].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [139] Varga, 2016, Macrophage PPARγ, a Lipid Activated Transcription Factor Controls the Growth Factor GDF3 and Skeletal Muscle Regeneration, Immun. source

In the paper

“For bone, it has been demonstrated that endothelial specification strongly contributes to microarchitectural structures—for example, cortical versus trabecular bone. Moreover, there is again an important contribution of Notch signaling since the process of endothelium specification and its mutual interaction with osteogenesis is Notch dependent [146,147,148,149,150].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [146] Chen, 2016, Endothelial cells are progenitors of cardiac pericytes and vascular smooth muscle cells, Nat. Commun. source
• Not checked yetcites [147] Chopra, 2018, Insights into Endothelial Progenitor Cells: Origin, Classification, Potentials, and Prospects, Stem Cells Int. source
• Not checked yetcites [148] Kusumbe, 2014, Coupling of angiogenesis and osteogenesis by a specific vessel subtype in bone, Nat. source
• Not checked yetcites [149] Ramasamy, 2014, Endothelial Notch activity promotes angiogenesis and osteogenesis in bone, Nat. source
• Not checked yetcites [150] Sivaraj, 2016, Blood vessel formation and function in bone, Dev. source

In the paper

“With respect to exercise as a countermeasure of bone and muscle loss, there is evidence that exercise is followed by epigenetic changes that besides modulating the accessibility of chromatin regions for adaptive signaling even determine the availability of metabolic intermediates for acetylation and methylation. Moreover, many of these epigenetic effects remain as signatures that may even have a”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [163] Axsom, 2019, Impact of parental exercise on epigenetic modifications inherited by offspring: A systematic review, Physiol. Rep. source
• Not checked yetcites [164] McGee, 2019, Epigenetics and Exercise, Trends Endocrinol. Metab. source

In the paper

“EC do strongly respond to mechanical cues, and one important target for their mechanoresponse is again the Notch pathway [152].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [152] Mack, 2018, NOTCH regulation of the endothelial cell phenotype, Curr. Opin. Hematol. source

In the paper

“What appears to be quite obvious is that skeletal precursors obtained from the bone marrow of osteoporotic patients harbor an almost diagnostic signature of their transcriptome, while the putatively epigenetic hubs of regulation await further identification [162].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [162] Benisch, P., Schilling, T., Klein-Hitpass, L., Frey, S.P., Seefried, L., Raaijmakers, N., Krug, M., Regensburger, M., Zeck, S., and Schinke, T. (2012). The Transcriptional Profile of Mesenchymal Stem Cell Populations in Primary Osteoporosis Is Distinct and Shows Overexpression of Osteogenic Inhibitors. PLOS ONE, 7. source

In the paper

“A recently published meta-analysis including 75 µG simulation studies reported moderate changes on muscle parameters within 7–14 days of µG and large effects on muscle force, mass, and peak power after 35 days [166].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [166] Winnard, 2019, Effect of Time on Human Muscle Outcomes During Simulated Microgravity Exposure Without Countermeasures—Systematic Review, Front. Physiol. source

In the paper

“Overall, tissue regeneration appears to be a teamwork that requires the interactions of several cell populations including tissue-specific precursors, immune cells, and endothelial precursors, whereby also the latter seem to be tissue specific, and this applies to both muscle and bone [153].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [153] Wosczyna, 2018, A Muscle Stem Cell Support Group: Coordinated Cellular Responses in Muscle Regeneration, Dev. Cell source

In the paper

“Overall, very much in analogy to bone regeneration, also muscle regeneration starts with an inflammatory reaction that activates the myofiber-specific amplification and differentiation process and ends up in tissue remodeling according to mechanical challenge.”

In the paper

“Restorative macrophages even orchestrate the interaction between myogenic cells and endothelial precursors during muscle regeneration. Interestingly, the main signaling molecules involved were apelin (APLN), oncostatin M (OSM), and periostin (POSTN), which are also important for bone regeneration [138].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [138] Latroche, 2017, Coupling between Myogenesis and Angiogenesis during Skeletal Muscle Regeneration Is Stimulated by Restorative Macrophages, Stem Cell Rep. source

In the paper

“None of the modalities can actually measure muscle mass, but lean mass and muscle volume are used as surrogates.”

In the paper

“Bioimpedance analysis systems estimate fat and fat-free mass from the electrical impedance measurements of trunk, arms, and legs using age, gender, and ethnic-specific algorithms validated in previous studies, albeit with large prediction errors for individuals [180].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [180] Kyle, 2004, Bioelectrical impedance analysis?part I: review of principles and methods, Clin. Nutr. source

In the paper

“Inflammation and disuse also propagate muscle fatty infiltration and bone marrow adipose expansion, which even more contributes to inflammatory activity initiating a vicious cycle.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [91] Ebert, 2015, Acute phase serum amyloid A induces proinflammatory cytokines and mineralization via toll-like receptor 4 in mesenchymal stem cells, Stem Cell Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [107] Gilbert, 2019, The consequences of ageing, progeroid syndromes and cellular senescence on mechanotransduction and the nucleus, Exp. Cell Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [108] Serrano, 2014, Cellular senescence: from physiology to pathology, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Boil. source
• Not checked yetcites [109] Czarkwiani, 2018, Out with the old, in with the new: senescence in development, Curr. Opin. Cell Boil. source
• Not checked yetcites [177] Schell, 2011, Inflammatory phase of bone healing initiates the regenerative healing cascade, Cell Tissue Research

In the paper

“T1 images are used for the assessment of intermuscular adipose tissue (IMAT), which is the ensemble of ‘white voxels’ within the fascia lata (FL) [181].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [181] Karampinos, 2011, Characterization of the regional distribution of skeletal muscle adipose tissue in type 2 diabetes using chemical shift-based water/fat separation, J. Magn. Reson. Imaging source

In the paper

“Neither DXA nor BIA can provide three-dimensional (3D) measurements.”

In the paper

“As expected, the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) that functions as a main signal transduction mechanism for muscle hypertrophy was identified [173].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [173] Vilchinskaya, N.A., Krivoi, I.I., and Shenkman, B.S. (2018). AMP-Activated Protein Kinase as a Key Trigger for the Disuse-Induced Skeletal Muscle Remodeling. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19. source

In the paper

“The former provides a quantitative measurement of lean (but not of muscle) mass and of fat mass of the total body or a sub part of it (Table 2).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [178] Buckinx, 2018, Pitfalls in the measurement of muscle mass: a need for a reference standard, J. Cachex- Sarcopenia Muscle source

In the paper

“While inflammation is an essential part of the initial phase of tissue regeneration, the failure of timely resolution through anti-inflammatory cytokines is key for these roadblocks and it also drives aging and the manifestations of an inflammatory senescence-associated phenotype (SASP) [91,107,108,109,177].”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [91] Ebert, 2015, Acute phase serum amyloid A induces proinflammatory cytokines and mineralization via toll-like receptor 4 in mesenchymal stem cells, Stem Cell Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [107] Gilbert, 2019, The consequences of ageing, progeroid syndromes and cellular senescence on mechanotransduction and the nucleus, Exp. Cell Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [108] Serrano, 2014, Cellular senescence: from physiology to pathology, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Boil. source
• Not checked yetcites [109] Czarkwiani, 2018, Out with the old, in with the new: senescence in development, Curr. Opin. Cell Boil. source
• Not checked yetcites [177] Schell, 2011, Inflammatory phase of bone healing initiates the regenerative healing cascade, Cell Tissue Research

In the paper

“In analogy to Dixon imaging, with CT, a muscle density measured in Hounsfield units (HU) (0 HU for water and–1000 HU for air) can be quantified.”

In the paper

“The value of muscle tissue (about 50–60 HU) is lowered by the infiltration of lipids.”

In the paper

“In clinical routine, the preferred method is semi-quantitative assessment of muscle and adipose tissue area or volume from T1 weighted MR images, which show very good contrast between these two tissues (see Figure 3 top left and top right showing T1 weighted images from a young healthy normal male and from an elderly male with sarcopenia).”

In the paper

“It impairs mechanotransduction and triggers the production of inhibitors of regeneration in both compartments, namely myostatin, activin, SOST, and DKK-1 under various clinical conditions.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [91] Ebert, 2015, Acute phase serum amyloid A induces proinflammatory cytokines and mineralization via toll-like receptor 4 in mesenchymal stem cells, Stem Cell Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [107] Gilbert, 2019, The consequences of ageing, progeroid syndromes and cellular senescence on mechanotransduction and the nucleus, Exp. Cell Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [108] Serrano, 2014, Cellular senescence: from physiology to pathology, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Boil. source
• Not checked yetcites [109] Czarkwiani, 2018, Out with the old, in with the new: senescence in development, Curr. Opin. Cell Boil. source
• Not checked yetcites [177] Schell, 2011, Inflammatory phase of bone healing initiates the regenerative healing cascade, Cell Tissue Research

In the paper

“Chronic inflammation can be both a cause and consequence of disuse and atrophy in muscle and bone.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites [91] Ebert, 2015, Acute phase serum amyloid A induces proinflammatory cytokines and mineralization via toll-like receptor 4 in mesenchymal stem cells, Stem Cell Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [107] Gilbert, 2019, The consequences of ageing, progeroid syndromes and cellular senescence on mechanotransduction and the nucleus, Exp. Cell Res. source
• Not checked yetcites [108] Serrano, 2014, Cellular senescence: from physiology to pathology, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Boil. source
• Not checked yetcites [109] Czarkwiani, 2018, Out with the old, in with the new: senescence in development, Curr. Opin. Cell Boil. source
• Not checked yetcites [177] Schell, 2011, Inflammatory phase of bone healing initiates the regenerative healing cascade, Cell Tissue Research

In the paper

“Both tissues sense mechanical strain, transduce biochemical signals in response, and mutually influence the respective tissue architecture to balance muscle power and fracture resistance.”

In the paper

“Epigenetics is strongly involved in aging phenomena, and recent research indicates that both positive exercise and training effects and also exercise resistance and degeneration can be modulated by epigenetic mechanisms.”

In the paper

“Continuous adaptive remodeling appears to be the key to delay aging-associated degeneration; hence, exercise and locomotion in concerted interaction between muscle and bone are core phenomena of health maintenance in higher organisms.”

In the paper

“Interestingly, the combination of soft tissue parameters discriminated hip fractures as well as a combination of trabecular BMD and cortical thickness, documenting a strong interaction between muscle and bone structure using fatty infiltration and other soft tissue architectural parameters as surrogate parameters.”

In the paper

“Physical strain is transformed into a multitude of biochemical signals that causes modeling or remodeling until a new state of homeostasis is reached as long as the physical input remains in a steady state.”

In the paper

“It is physical strain that strongly modulates the biology of cells along their lineage commitment and maturation as well as the hypertrophy versus atrophy of tissues according to physical challenge.”