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Cited by 5Environmental Impact and SustainabilityBIM and Construction IntegrationSustainable Building Design and Assessment

Assessment of Sustainable Hybrid Formwork Systems Using Life Cycle Assessment and the Wear-Out Coefficient—A Case Study

Open access
Baskaran, Dheepika, Chockkalingam, Umarani, Senthil Muthalvan, Renuka·2025·Buildings
DOI 10.3390/buildings15101630
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Abstract

The construction sector is swiftly evolving toward more sustainable practices. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is essential for assessing the environmental impact of construction materials. A crucial factor in this context is the wear-out coefficient (WOC), which indicates a material’s reusability and directly affects the amount of material used during a project’s life cycle. This study contrasts conventional timber formwork with alternative materials, including aluminum, steel, plywood, plastic, and various hybrid systems. The environmental consequences are assessed throughout several life cycle stages—manufacturing, transportation, usage, and disposal—utilizing a 3D building information modeling (BIM)-integrated life cycle assessment (LCA) framework. This method facilitates adherence to green building standards and corresponds with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Hybrid Option 2 (timber–aluminum–steel) and Hybrid Option 4 (steel–plastic–aluminum) distinguish themselves as superior choices, integrating environmental efficacy with resilience. Aluminum exhibits the lowest WOC (0.13), signifying its exceptional reusability and lack of environmental impact. The results highlight the need to incorporate BIM and LCA in formwork material planning to improve sustainability, prolong the service life, and maximize resource efficiency in construction.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This case study compares conventional timber formwork with six hybrid formwork systems for a cable-stayed bridge pylon using BIM-integrated LCA and a wear-out coefficient (WOC). It concludes that Hybrid Options 2 (timber-aluminum-steel) and 4 (steel-plastic-aluminum) are the best sustainable choices, with aluminum showing the lowest WOC (0.13).

Key findings

  • Aluminum had the lowest WOC at 0.13, followed by plastic at 0.32, steel at 0.53, and timber/plywood at 3.20; lower WOC indicates greater reusability and lower environmental impact.
  • Hybrid Option 2 (timber-aluminum-steel) and Hybrid Option 4 (steel-plastic-aluminum) were identified as the best sustainable solutions, combining reusable materials with lower environmental impact.
  • In the environmental impact assessment, steel was generally the major contributor across many categories; for example, GWP was minimal at 10% in the steel-timber-plywood system and peaked at 28% in the aluminum-steel-plywood system.
  • Single-cycle material costs ranged from USD 12,926.46 for Hybrid Option 1 to USD 101,948.94 for Hybrid Option 6; Hybrid Option 5 was reported as the most economical over repeated use at USD 49,520.57, followed by Hybrid Option 4 at USD 62,680.79.

Methods

  • Case study at a cable-stayed bridge pylon in Byculla, Mumbai; pylon height 50.37 m, with 16 castings of 3.5 m per leg and 32 castings for two legs; approximately 1313 m³ of concrete, with the initial casting at 60 m³.
  • A 3D BIM model was created in Autodesk Revit 2019, and material data were exported to OpenLCA 2.3.1 with the ecoinvent database following ISO 14044; the functional unit was 1 m³ of surface components and 1.0 kg of supporting structural components per concrete pour cycle.
  • WOC was calculated as WOC = h/f, where h = 32 castings and f = reuse frequency; six hybrid formwork options were compared with conventional timber formwork, and cost analysis used Mumbai schedule of rates and MIVAN aluminum rates.

Limitations

  • The paper states material constraints: steel has elevated carbon emissions during fabrication, aluminum is unsuitable for subsequent mold alterations, and plastic can degrade environmentally during extended use.
  • Evident from the text: the study is a single case study, and reuse frequencies were established by site inspections, manufacturer specifications, and expert consultations rather than a broader empirical dataset.
  • Evident from the text: there are inconsistencies in reuse-cycle values, such as aluminum reported as 300 cycles in one place but f = 250 in Table 6, and steel reported as 80–100 cycles but f = 60 in Table 6; WOC uses 32 castings while the cost analysis considers 50 cycles.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/buildings15101630

Cites

46 of 46 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

3 of 12 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingnone given

    The life cycle assessment (LCA) of the formwork system identifies potential environmental hazards associated with the materials utilized.

    “The life cycle assessment (LCA) of the formwork system identifies potential environmental hazards associated with the materials utilized.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The total timber volume of the conventional formwork system was estimated to be 11.43 m3 based on the 3D model.

    “The total timber volume was estimated to be 11.43 m 3 based on the 3D model.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    Aluminum exhibits the lowest wear-out coefficient (WOC) among the formwork materials assessed, at 0.13.

    “Aluminum exhibits the lowest WOC (0.13), signifying its exceptional reusability and lack of environmental impact.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The total timber volume in the conventional formwork system was estimated to be 11.43 m3 based on the 3D model.

    “The total timber volume was estimated to be 11.43 m 3 based on the 3D model.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Timber and plywood exhibit the greatest WOC values (3.20), indicating restricted reuse potential.

    “Conversely, timber and plywood exhibit the greatest WOC values (3.20), indicating restricted reuse potential.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
  • May combine two claims. 57
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Formwork is the predominant expenditure in reinforced concrete construction, comprising up to 60% of the unit cost of the RC structure and as much as 15% of total construction costs.

    “Formwork constitutes the predominant expenditure in reinforced concrete (RC) construction, possibly comprising up to 60% of the unit cost of the RC structure and accounting for as much as 15% of the total construction costs [2,3].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2] Ko, 2011, Improving Formwork Engineering Using the Toyota Way, J. Eng. Proj. Prod. Manag. source
    • cites [3] 2017, Comprehensive Approach to Efficient Planning of Formwork Utilization on the Construction Site, Procedia Eng. source

      The Introduction (page unavailable) calls formwork the largest single cost component of a concrete building’s structural frame. It gives an average of 35–45% of a reinforced-concrete structure’s unit cost and says the figure can reach 60% for civil engineering structures specifically. The paper does not support the claimed 15% of total construction costs. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The formwork system typically accounts for approximately 40% to 60% of the overall construction expenditure.

    “The formwork system typically accounts for approximately 40% to 60% of the overall construction expenditure [50].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50] Gowripalan, 2021, Pressure Exerted on Formwork by Self-Compacting Concrete at Early Ages: A Review, Case Stud. Constr. Mater. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The formwork system constitutes 50% to 60% of the total expenditure of on-site concrete constructions.

    “Given these expenses, the overall cost of on-site concrete constructions indicates that the formwork system constitutes 50% to 60% of the total expenditure [13,14].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [13] Arumsari, 2020, Cost and Time Analysis on the Selection of Formwork Installation Method, IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci. source

      The Cost Analysis section compares the costs of two formwork methods for a 24-floor building, but does not give formwork's share of total on-site concrete construction expenditure. Searches for the 50%–60% figure and for formwork's percentage of total construction cost found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [14] Hyun, 2018, Automated Optimization of Formwork Design through Spatial Analysis in Building Information Modeling, Autom. Constr. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The TEP was highest at 24% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system, and lowest at 14% in both the steel, timber, and plywood system and the steel, timber, and plastic system.

    “The TEP was highest at 24% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system, and lowest at 14% in both the steel, timber, and plywood system and the steel, timber, and plastic system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The MAP was lowest (9%) in the steel, timber, and plywood system and highest (31%) in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system.

    “The MAP was lowest (9%) in the steel, timber, and plywood system and highest (31%) in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Plastic has a moderate impact in general, but the least impact on some metrics, like the ODP and AP, and timber has the highest impact on these metrics.

    “Plastic has a moderate impact in general, but the least impact on some metrics, like the ODP and AP, and timber has the highest impact on these metrics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Table 13 and Figure 12 reveal that steel is the major contributor to most of the environmental impacts, followed by plastics, which have a moderate impact, and plywood, which has an almost negligible impact.

    “Table 13 and Figure 12 reveal that steel is the major contributor to most of the environmental impacts, followed by plastics, which have a moderate impact, and plywood, which has an almost negligible impact.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Approximately 1313 m3 of concrete was used for the construction of the cable-stayed pylon, encompassing 32 successive castings.

    “This study utilized approximately 1313 m 3 of concrete for the construction of the cable-stayed pylon, encompassing 32 successive castings.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The EP measure reached its peak at 27% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system, while it was at its nadir at 10% in the steel, timber, and plywood system.

    “The EP measure reached its peak at 27% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system, while it was at its nadir at 10% in the steel, timber, and plywood system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Table 12 and Figure 11 reveal that steel is the major contributor to most of the environmental impacts, followed by plastics, which have a moderate impact, and aluminum, which has the least impact.

    “Table 12 and Figure 11 reveal that steel is the major contributor to most of the environmental impacts, followed by plastics, which have a moderate impact, and aluminum, which has the least impact.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Aluminum has the lowest WOC (0.13), indicative of its extended service life and elevated reuse frequency (250 uses).

    “For instance, aluminum has the lowest WOC (0.13), indicative of its extended service life and elevated reuse frequency (250 uses).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The global warming potential (GWP) was minimal at 10% in the steel, timber, and plywood systems, while it peaked at 28% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood systems.

    “The global warming potential (GWP) was minimal at 10% in the steel, timber, and plywood systems, while it peaked at 28% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood systems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    The industrial timber formwork system has the most significant environmental impact, while the traditional timber formwork system ranks second, exhibiting an impact 30 times greater than that of the conventional timber formwork.

    “The industrial timber formwork system has the most significant environmental impact, while the traditional timber formwork system ranks second, exhibiting an impact 30 times greater than that of the conventional timber formwork.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Table 9 reveals that steel is the major contributor to most environmental impacts, followed by timber, which has moderate impacts, and plywood, which has the least impact.

    “Table 9 reveals that steel is the major contributor to most environmental impacts, followed by timber, which has moderate impacts, and plywood, which has the least impact.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The AP metric was lowest at 11% in the steel, timber, and plywood system and highest at 27% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system.

    “The AP metric was lowest at 11% in the steel, timber, and plywood system and highest at 27% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    This study utilized approximately 1313 m3 of concrete for the construction of the cable-stayed pylon, encompassing 32 successive castings.

    “This study utilized approximately 1313 m 3 of concrete for the construction of the cable-stayed pylon, encompassing 32 successive castings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The ODP was minimal (11%) in the steel, timber, and plywood system and maximal (29%) in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system.

    “The ODP was minimal (11%) in the steel, timber, and plywood system and maximal (29%) in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The POP was lowest (12%) in both the steel, timber, and plywood system and the steel, timber, and plastic system, while it was greatest (27%) in the aluminum, steel, and plastic system.

    “The POP was lowest (12%) in both the steel, timber, and plywood system and the steel, timber, and plastic system, while it was greatest (27%) in the aluminum, steel, and plastic system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The findings reveal the environmental drawbacks of the timber formwork system, since it impacts marine and freshwater ecosystems, affects human health, and involves energy-intensive production.

    “The findings reveal the environmental drawbacks of the timber formwork system, since it impacts marine and freshwater ecosystems, affects human health, and involves energy-intensive production.”
    • Also stated in: § 9.7. Environmental Impact Assessment · plain
      “The examination of the traditional formwork system identifies numerous environmental disadvantages, such as ecosystem damage and resource depletion, and emphasizes the necessity of a transition to more sustainable techniques.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The ADP metric was lowest at 15% in the steel, timber, and plywood system, and highest at 18% in both the steel, plastic, and aluminum system and the steel, aluminum, and plywood system.

    “The ADP metric was lowest at 15% in the steel, timber, and plywood system, and highest at 18% in both the steel, plastic, and aluminum system and the steel, aluminum, and plywood system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The ADP (ff) metric was the lowest at 10% in the steel, timber, and plywood system, while it reached the maximum level of 28% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system.

    “The ADP (ff) metric was the lowest at 10% in the steel, timber, and plywood system, while it reached the maximum level of 28% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Table 14 and Figure 13 reveal that aluminum is the major contributor to most of the environmental impacts, followed by steel, which has a moderate impact, and plywood, which has an almost negligible impact.

    “Table 14 and Figure 13 reveal that aluminum is the major contributor to most of the environmental impacts, followed by steel, which has a moderate impact, and plywood, which has an almost negligible impact.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The FWP measure was lowest at 11% in the steel, timber, and plywood system, and highest at 26% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system.

    “The FWP measure was lowest at 11% in the steel, timber, and plywood system, and highest at 26% in the aluminum, steel, and plywood system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Table 10 and Figure 9 reveal that steel is the major contributor to most of the environmental impacts, followed by aluminum, which has a moderate impact, and timber, which has the least impact when compared to the other two.

    “Table 10 and Figure 9 reveal that steel is the major contributor to most of the environmental impacts, followed by aluminum, which has a moderate impact, and timber, which has the least impact when compared to the other two.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The initial casting's volume was 60 m3, with the sizes progressively diminishing in later pieces.

    “The initial casting's volume was 60 m 3 , with the sizes progressively diminishing in later pieces.”
    • Also stated in: § 8. Case Study for Current Research · plain
      “The initial casting's volume was 60 m 3 , with the sizes progressively diminishing in later pieces.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The HTP was lowest at 13% for steel, timber, and plywood, and highest at 21% for aluminum, steel, and plywood.

    “The HTP was lowest at 13% for steel, timber, and plywood, and highest at 21% for aluminum, steel, and plywood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Hybrid Option 3, the aluminum components are substituted with plastic, which is somewhat less expensive than aluminum; however, timber remains the primary cost contributor.

    “The aluminum components in Hybrid Option 2 are substituted with plastic, which is somewhat less expensive than aluminum; however, timber remains the primary cost contributor.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Plastic-incorporated hybrid formwork systems (Hybrid Options 3, 4, and 5) balance the distribution of environmental impacts among materials, reducing steel's dominance but introducing concern in terms of acidification metrics.

    “Plastic-incorporated systems (Hybrid Options 3,4, and 5) balance the distribution of environmental impacts among materials, reducing steel's dominance but introducing concern in terms of acidification metrics.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The whole expenditure for Hybrid Option 2 amounts to USD 26,087, with aluminum accounting for around USD 13,811, lumber for USD 9131, and steel for USD 3147.

    “The whole expenditure amounts to USD 26,087, with aluminum accounting for around USD 13,811, lumber for USD 9131, and steel for USD 3147.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The total cost of the materials utilized in the case study (Hybrid Option 1) is the least expensive at USD 12,927, followed by Hybrid Option 3, which totals approximately USD 18,710.

    “The total cost of the materials utilized in the case study (Hybrid Option 1) is the least expensive at USD 12,927, followed by Hybrid Option 3, which totals approximately USD 18,710.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Timber is the costliest material.

    “Timber is the costliest material”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The conventional formwork system exhibits increased environmental burdens, reflecting the risks to aquatic and freshwater ecosystems, reduced fossil fuel levels, and increased energy consumption for timber processing.

    “The conventional formwork system exhibits increased environmental burdens, reflecting the risks to aquatic and freshwater ecosystems, reduced fossil fuel levels, and increased energy consumption for timber processing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The findings indicate that traditional formwork systems impose significant environmental loads, whereas hybrid formwork systems allocate the environmental impact across materials, providing a balanced and sustainable solution.

    “The findings indicate that traditional formwork systems impose significant environmental loads, whereas hybrid formwork systems allocate the environmental impact across materials, providing a balanced and sustainable solution.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The whole expenditure for Hybrid Option 5 amounts to USD 49,521, with plastic accounting for approximately USD 45,725, steel for USD 3146.40, and plywood for roughly USD 650.

    “The whole expenditure amounts to USD 49,521, with plastic accounting for approximately USD 45,725, steel for USD 3146.40, and plywood for roughly USD 650.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The whole expenditure for Hybrid Option 6 amounts to approximately USD 101,949, with aluminum accounting for about USD 98,153, steel for USD 3145, and plywood for USD 650.

    “The whole expenditure amounts to approximately USD 101,949, with aluminum accounting for about USD 98,153, steel for USD 3145, and plywood for USD 650.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The whole expenditure for Hybrid Option 4 amounts to USD 62,681, with plastic accounting for USD 45,725, aluminum for USD 13,811, and steel for approximately USD 3147.

    “The whole expenditure amounts to USD 62,681, with plastic accounting for USD 45,725, aluminum for USD 13,811, and steel for approximately USD 3147.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Timber has a lower repetition cycle than aluminum.

    “Timber is the costliest material with a lower repetition cycle”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The whole expenditure for Hybrid Option 1 amounts to approximately USD 12,927, with lumber accounting for roughly USD 9131, steel for USD 3147, and plywood for approximately USD 650.

    “The whole expenditure amounts to approximately USD 12,927, with lumber accounting for roughly USD 9131, steel for USD 3147, and plywood for approximately USD 650.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The total expenditure for Hybrid Option 3 amounts to USD 18,710, with timber and plastic contributing approximately USD 9131 and USD 6434, respectively, and steel accounting for about USD 3147.

    “The total expenditure amounts to USD 18,710, with timber and plastic contributing approximately USD 9131 and USD 6434, respectively, and steel accounting for about USD 3147.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In Hybrid Option 2, the plywood components are replaced with aluminum, which constitutes the principal cost factor, succeeded by lumber.

    “This case study involves the replacement of the plywood components with aluminum, which constitutes the principal cost factor, succeeded by lumber.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Aluminum has the longest lifespan among the materials, with a wear-out coefficient of 0.13.

    “Aluminum has the longest lifespan among the materials, with a wear coefficient of 0.13”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Table 15 indicates that lumber is the primary cost contributor to building in one option, although it is the least contributor in another context.

    “Table 15 provides an analysis of the material costs utilized in the case study, indicating that lumber is the primary cost contributor to building in one option, although it is the least contributor in another context.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Hybrid Option 5, which utilizes materials such as steel, plastic, and plywood, is the most economical, with a total cost of USD 49,521, equivalent to the cost of a single use of this material combination.

    “According to this study, Hybrid Option 5, which utilizes materials such as steel, plastic, and plywood, is the most economical, with a total cost of USD 49,521, equivalent to the cost of a single use of this material combination.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Aluminum-incorporated systems (Hybrid Options 2, 4 and 6) reduce toxicity and reflect a shift in environmental impact.

    “Aluminum-incorporated systems (Hybrid Options 2,4 and 6) reduce toxicity and reflect a shift in environmental impact.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Hybrid Option 2 (timber-aluminum-steel) and Hybrid Option 4 (steel-plastic-aluminum) are superior choices, combining environmental efficacy with resilience.

    “Hybrid Option 2 (timber-aluminum-steel) and Hybrid Option 4 (steel-plastic-aluminum) distinguish themselves as superior choices, integrating environmental efficacy with resilience.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The concrete volume directly affected the planning of the formwork reuse cycles and structural scheduling.

    “This concrete volume directly affected the planning of the formwork reuse cycles and structural scheduling.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The combined formwork systems exhibit minimal environmental impact, mostly due to including materials with reduced wear-out coefficients, like aluminum (0.13) and plastic (0.32).

    “In contrast, the combined formwork systems exhibit minimal environmental impact, mostly due to including materials with reduced wear-out coefficients, like aluminum (0.13) and plastic (0.32).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    A diminished WOC score indicates improved material efficiency, decreased waste, and heightened sustainability.

    “A diminished WOC score indicates improved material efficiency, decreased waste, and heightened sustainability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The data utilized for the analysis of the hybrid formwork systems are sourced from the ecoinvent database in accordance with the ISO 14044 standards.

    “The data utilized for the analysis of the hybrid formwork systems are sourced from the ecoinvent database in accordance with the ISO 14044 standards, and the employed data are presented in Table 4.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites ISO 14044

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The wear-out coefficient of the materials affects the overall project cost, as the frequency of repetitions varies for each material.

    “The wear-out coefficient of the materials affects the overall project cost, as the frequency of repetitions varies for each material.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The elevated wear-out coefficient of timber and plywood (3.20) requires frequent replacements, hence escalating resource consumption and waste production.

    “This is mainly because of the elevated wear-out coefficient of timber and plywood (3.20), which requires frequent replacements, hence escalating the resource consumption and waste production.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Integrating Revit and OpenLCA in this study enhanced data integrity, minimized manual effort, and facilitated prompt updates in response to design modifications.

    “This methodology enhanced the data integrity, minimized the manual effort, and facilitated prompt updates in response to design modifications.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Aluminum's low WOC signifies exceptional reusability and a lack of environmental impact.

    “Aluminum exhibits the lowest WOC (0.13), signifying its exceptional reusability and lack of environmental impact.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The research results underscore the significance of material selection in mitigating environmental impacts and demonstrate how LCA may improve sustainable construction methods.

    “The research results underscore the significance of material selection in mitigating environmental impacts and demonstrate how LCA may improve sustainable construction methods.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The material rates are derived from the schedule of rates (SOR) pertinent to the case study region, Mumbai, and the aluminum rate is established according to the prevailing practices of the MIVAN formwork application.

    “The material rates are derived from the schedule of rates (SOR) pertinent to the case study region, Mumbai, and the aluminum rate is established according to the prevailing practices of the MIVAN formwork application [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] (2025, May 02). State Schedule Rates. Available online: https://www.winntus.com/mumbai/mivan-shuttering.htm.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The reuse frequencies (f) for each material type were established by site inspections, manufacturer specifications, and expert consultations.

    “The reuse frequencies (f) for each material type were established by site inspections, manufacturer specifications, and expert consultations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Research on constructing 3D BIM models for formwork systems is scarce, and research integrating low-carbon materials, material reusability, and sustainable practices in buildings is markedly limited.

    “The necessity for this study derives from the scarcity of research concerning the construction of 3D BIM models for formwork systems, a topic that continues to be explored.”
    • Also stated in: § 6. Scope of Study · plain
      “Nonetheless, research pertaining to the integration of low-carbon materials, material reusability, and sustainable practices in buildings is markedly limited.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The extended lifespan of aluminum markedly diminishes material depletion and waste production, rendering it an ideal selection for sustainable building.

    “The extended lifespan of aluminum markedly diminishes the material depletion and waste production, rendering it an ideal selection for sustainable building.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Steel, possessing a wear-out coefficient of 0.53, offers superior durability compared to timber and plywood, although it is less sustainable than aluminum.

    “Steel, possessing a wear-out coefficient of 0.53, offers superior durability compared to timber and plywood, although it is less sustainable than aluminum.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Aluminum exhibits the highest durability with 300 cycles, followed by plastic at 120 cycles, steel ranging from 80 to 100 cycles, plywood at approximately 50 cycles, and hardwood, the least durable material, with roughly 10 cycles.

    “Aluminum exhibits the highest durability with 300 cycles, followed by plastic at 120 cycles, steel ranging from 80 to 100 cycles, plywood at approximately 50 cycles, and hardwood, the least durable material, with roughly 10 cycles [1,52].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [1] Hurd, M.K. (2005). Formwork for Concrete, ACI Committee 347; American Concrete Institute.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [52] Hao, 2021, Quantifying Construction Waste Reduction through the Application of Prefabrication: A Case Study in Anhui, China, Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The integration of BIM and LCA facilitated ecologically responsible decision-making conforming to sustainable development principles and green construction certification criteria.

    “Furthermore, this integration of BIM and LCA facilitated ecologically responsible decision-making, conforming to sustainable development principles and certification criteria in green construction practices.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The absence of standardized methodologies for LCA poses difficulties in accurately evaluating environmental impacts.

    “The absence of standardized methodologies for LCA poses difficulties in accurately evaluating environmental impacts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The price of 12 mm thick plywood is sourced from the standard operating rate (SOR) for the requisite conversions for 1 m3 of material.

    “The price of 12 mm thick plywood is sourced from the standard operating rate (SOR) for the requisite conversions for 1 m 3 of material [51].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] (2025, May 02). State Schedule Rates. Available online: https://www.winntus.com/mumbai/mivan-shuttering.htm.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Steel-dominant systems (Hybrid Options 1, 2, and 3) generally exhibit the highest impact across many categories, as steel increases carbon emissions and fossil fuel depletion, making it a less sustainable option.

    “Steel-dominant systems (Hybrid Options 1, 2, and 3) generally exhibit the highest impact across many categories, as steel increases carbon emissions and fossil fuel depletion, making it a less sustainable option.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    While evaluating the singular cycle utilization of materials alongside their recurrent application, Hybrid Option 5 emerges as the most economical choice, as the repeated use of lumber may lead to heightened environmental repercussions linked to excessive timber consumption.

    “Nevertheless, while evaluating the singular cycle utilization of materials alongside their recurrent application, Hybrid Option 5 emerges as the most economical choice, as the repeated use of lumber may lead to heightened environmental repercussions linked to excessive timber consumption.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The best sustainable solutions suggested by this study are Hybrid Option 2 and Hybrid Option 4.

    “The best sustainable solutions suggested by this study are Hybrid Option 2 and Hybrid Option 4.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Utilizing lumber in formwork systems for extensive repetitive use is costly, but employing materials such as steel, aluminum, and plastic is more economical.

    “This study demonstrates that utilizing lumber in formwork systems for extensive repetitive use is costly, but employing materials such as steel, aluminum, and plastic is more economical.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
67 of 67

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Steel possesses the lowest wear coefficient among formwork materials, while timber and plywood have higher values because of their accelerated wear rate.

    “Steel possesses the lowest wear coefficient, whereas timber and plywood have a higher value due to their accelerated wear rate.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Wood is the primary material in traditional formwork systems and provides economic advantages relative to alternative methods.

    “Wood constitutes the primary material in traditional formwork systems, providing economic advantages relative to alternative methods.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Wood has restricted reusability and is prone to swelling, distortion, and fracturing.

    “Nevertheless, it has restricted reusability and is prone to swelling, distortion, and fracturing.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Steel, aluminum, and plastic have specific limitations: elevated carbon emissions during steel fabrication, unsuitability of aluminum for subsequent mold alterations, and environmental degradability of plastic during extended usage.

    “The potential limitations associated with these materials include the elevated carbon emissions during the fabrication of steel, the unsuitability of aluminum for subsequent alterations in the mold, and the environmental degradability of plastic during extended usage.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A lower wear-out coefficient of a material indicates a reduced environmental impact.

    “indicating a reduced environmental impact”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Steel and aluminum are reusable materials.

    “the reusable nature of the materials used (steel and aluminum)”
6 of 6

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Option 4's stated impact ranking reverses its table

    Major

    The text calls steel the major contributor and aluminum the least, but Table 12 assigns the largest ADP(ff) value to plastic and the smallest to steel. Its other listed impact categories likewise do not support the stated overall ranking.

  • Option 5's stated impact ranking contradicts its table

    Major

    The text calls steel the major contributor and plastic a moderate contributor, whereas Table 13 gives plastic a greater impact than steel for ADP(ff) and every other listed category.

  • Casting heights exceed the stated pylon height

    Minor

    Sixteen castings of 3.5 m each give 56 m for one leg, not the stated pylon height of 50.37 m.

    Reported 50.37 · recomputed 56

  • Aluminum is described as having no environmental impact despite measured impacts

    Minor

    The abstract claims aluminum lacks environmental impact, while the paper reports nonzero impacts for aluminum, including a GWP of 2.30 × 103 kg CO2 eq in Option 2.

  • Option 5 is called cheapest despite a lower stated Option 1 cost

    Minor

    The repeated-use cost discussion calls Option 5 the most economical at USD 49,521, but also calls Option 1 the most economical in the entire assessment at the lower cost of USD 49,447.

  • Option 4 is assigned plywood instead of aluminum in the cost discussion

    Minor

    The cost discussion describes Option 4 as steel, plastic, and plywood, while Table 3 defines it as steel, plastic, and aluminum.

  • Option 5 materials differ between its description and table

    Minor

    Section 9.5 describes Option 5 as timber, aluminum, and steel, but Table 3 defines Option 5 as steel, plastic, and plywood.

  • Option 6 description includes timber contrary to its listed materials

    Minor

    Section 9.6 describes Option 6 as incorporating timber, aluminum, and steel, whereas Table 3 lists aluminum, steel, and plywood.

  • Option 3 misidentifies timber as having the highest acidification impact

    Minor

    The text says timber has the highest AP impact, but Table 11 gives steel 29.6, timber 5.38, and plastic 3.99 kg SO2 eq. Timber is between the other two, not highest.

9 of 9

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 48 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Peurifoy, L.P., and Garold, D.O. (2010). Formwork for Concrete Structures, McGraw Hill. [4th ed.].
  2. Shah, 2005, Modular Aluminium Formwork for Faster, Economical and Quality Construction, Indian Concr. J., 79, 22

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Baskaran, D., Chockkalingam, U., & Senthil Muthalvan, R.
Affiliations
  • Anna University, Chennai (IN)
  • Department of Civil Engineering, CEGC, Anna University, Chennai 600025, Tamil Nadu, India
Corresponding author
Baskaran, Dheepika
ORCID
Senthil Muthalvan, Renuka
Venue
Buildings
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2025-05-12
Volume
15
Issue
10
Pages
1630
ISSN
2075-5309 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/buildings15101630
OpenAlex
W4410298651
Cited by
5
References
48
Citations by year
2026: 3 · 2025: 2
FWCI
1.42
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Buildings (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Environmental Impact and Sustainability
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › BIM and Construction Integration
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Sustainable Building Design and Assessment
Keywords
formwork, timber formwork, aluminum formwork, steel formwork, plywood, environmental impact of construction materials, sustainable construction, green building standards, Sustainable Development Goals

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-18.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-18.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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