Exergy-Based and Economic Evaluation of Liquefaction Processes for Cryogenics Energy Storage
Open accessAbstract
Cryogenics-based energy storage (CES) is a thermo-electric bulk-energy storage technology, which stores electricity in the form of a liquefied gas at cryogenic temperatures. The charging process is an energy-intensive gas liquefaction process and the limiting factor to CES round trip efficiency (RTE). During discharge, the liquefied gas is pressurized, evaporated and then super-heated to drive a gas turbine. The cold released during evaporation can be stored and supplied to the subsequent charging process. In this research, exergy-based methods are applied to quantify the effect of cold storage on the thermodynamic performance of six liquefaction processes and to identify the most cost-efficient process. For all liquefaction processes assessed, the integration of cold storage was shown to multiply the liquid yield, reduce the specific power requirement by 50–70% and increase the exergetic efficiency by 30–100%. The Claude-based liquefaction processes reached the highest exergetic efficiencies (76–82%). The processes reached their maximum efficiency at different liquefaction pressures. The Heylandt process reaches the highest RTE (50%) and the lowest specific power requirement (1021 kJ/kg). The lowest production cost of liquid air (18.4 €/ton) and the lowest specific investment cost (<700 €/kWchar) were achieved by the Kapitza process.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This paper applies exergy-based and economic methods to compare six air liquefaction processes for cryogenic energy storage (CES), with and without integrated cold storage. It finds that cold storage greatly improves liquefaction performance and identifies the Kapitza process as the most cost-effective option among the Claude-based systems.
Key findings
- Integrating cold storage multiplied liquid yield, reduced specific power requirement by 50–70%, and increased exergetic efficiency by 30–100% for all assessed liquefaction processes.
- At 200 bar, the simple Claude, Heylandt, and Kapitza processes reached the highest exergetic efficiencies (76.6%, 76.7%, and 76.6%), lowest specific power requirements (1059, 1021, and 1059 kJ/kg liquid air), and highest liquid yields (0.609, 0.629, and 0.609).
- Sensitivity analysis showed the Heylandt process performs best at liquefaction pressures of 120 bar and above, reaching an optimum of approximately 81.2% at 130 bar, while the Claude and Kapitza processes are optimal at about 100 bar with 80% exergetic efficiency.
- The Kapitza process achieved the lowest production cost of liquid air (18.4 €/ton) and the lowest specific investment cost (691 €/kW char; abstract reports <700 €/kW char), with total revenue requirement of 2670 €/a. The abstract also reports the Heylandt process reaching the highest round-trip efficiency (50%) and lowest specific power requirement (1021 kJ/kg), while Table 9 lists RTE values of 46.9% (Claude), 49.0% (Heylandt), and 46.9% (Kapitza).
Methods
- Six liquefaction processes were simulated in Aspen Plus V9 under steady-state conditions using the Peng-Robinson equation of state: simple Linde, precooled Linde, dual-pressure Linde, simple Claude, Kapitza, and Heylandt. Simulations were run with and without integrated cold storage; Fortran routines calculated exergy values.
- Energetic and exergetic analyses compared liquid yield, specific power requirement, and exergetic efficiency. Sensitivity analyses varied splitting ratio and liquefaction pressure for the three most efficient Claude-based processes. Economic analysis used the total revenue requirement method, sized to 20 MW charging power, and exergoeconomic analysis identified cost-effectiveness at component level.
- Cold storage used two fluid tanks with R218 and methanol; discharge was at 150 bar with specific power output of 470 kJ/kg liquid air. Economic assumptions included CEPCI 2017 = 567.5, 8% effective interest, 3% inflation, 30-year plant life, 2882 h/a full-load operation, OMC 1.5% of FCI, and mean charged electricity cost of 17.2 €/MWh.
Limitations
- The paper does not state an explicit limitations section.
- Evident from the text: the economic and exergoeconomic conclusions rely on simulation and cost assumptions, including component cost estimates from charts, equations, and past purchase orders; a total capital investment for the 40 MW discharge unit assumed as 17.1 Mio €; and LCOE sensitivity analysis reported elsewhere [34] rather than fully in this paper.
- Evident from the text: only the three most efficient Claude-based processes received sensitivity, economic, and exergoeconomic analyses, while all six processes were compared only in energetic and exergetic terms; cold storage thermal losses were accounted for as 4 K/cycle.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
3 of 20 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
The optimal configuration of the Claude and the Kapitza processes is at about 100 bar, reaching 80% exergetic efficiency.
“The optimal configuration of the Claude and the Kapitza process is at about 100 bar reaching 80% exergetic efficiency.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The Heylandt process reaches the lowest specific power requirement (1021 kJ/kg).
“The Heylandt process reaches the highest RTE (50%) and the lowest specific power requirement (1021 kJ/kg).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The minimum splitting ratio is restricted by the minimum pinch temperature (∆T MHE1, min → 1 K).
“The minimum splitting ratio is therefore restricted by the minimum pinch temperature ( ∆T MHE1, min → 1 K ).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The results of economic analysis of the Claude and the Kapitza process differ despite similar performance in energetic and exergetic analysis.
“The results of economic analysis of the Claude and the Kapitza process differ despite similar performance in energetic and exergetic analysis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The improvements were most significant in the simple Linde and the precooled Linde configuration where the exergetic efficiency increased significantly.
“The improvements were most significant in the simple Linde and the precooled Linde configuration where the exergetic efficiency increased significantly.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingown data
The simple Claude, Heylandt, and Kapitza processes have the lowest specific power requirements (1059, 1021, and 1059 kJ/kg liquid air, respectively).
“The simple Claude process, the Heylandt process and the Kapitza process reach the highest exergetic efficiencies (76.6 %, 76.7 % and 76.6), and have the lowest specific power requirement (1059, 1021 and 1059 kJ/kgliquid air) and the highest liquid yields (0.609, 0.629, 0.609).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The specific power consumption of air liquefaction processes reported in [13] and [35] is twice as large as in the presented systems.
“The specific power consumption of air liquefaction processes reported in [13] and [35] is twice as large than in the presented systems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [13] Borri, 2017, A preliminary study on the optimal configuration and operating range of a ‘‘microgrid scale” air liquefaction plant for Liquid Air Energy Storage, Energy Convers. Manag. source
- cites [35] Strahan, D., Akhurst, M., Atkins, D.A., Arbon, P.I., and Ayres, M. (2013). Liquid Air in the Energy and Transport Systems, Center for Low Carbon Futures.
Not checked in the free run.
- Findingcitation
The integration of cold storage reduces the production cost of liquid air from 37-48 €/ton to 18.4-25.9 €/ton (or 18-26 €/ton).
“The integration of cold storage thus not only decreases the specific power consumption to half but also reduces the production cost of liquid air from 37-48 €/ton [35] to 18.4-25.9€/ton (Table 8).”
- Also stated in: § • · plain
“The production cost of liquid air was found to be significantly reduced with the integrating cold storage (18-26 €/ton).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [35] Strahan, D., Akhurst, M., Atkins, D.A., Arbon, P.I., and Ayres, M. (2013). Liquid Air in the Energy and Transport Systems, Center for Low Carbon Futures.
Not checked in the free run.
- Also stated in: § • · plain
- Findingown data
The Kapitza process-based system has the lowest total revenue requirement.
“The economic analysis revealed that the Kapitza process-based system has the lowest specific investment cost and total revenue requirement.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The Kapitza process achieved the lowest specific investment cost (<700 €/kW char).
“The lowest production cost of liquid air (18.4 €/ton) and the lowest specific investment cost (<700 €/kW char ) were achieved by the Kapitza process.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The operation and maintenance costs are a percentage of the fixed capital investment ranging from 1.5% to 3% of the plant purchase price per year.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The system operates at low electricity prices.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The specific exergy costs of the entering cold storage media streams are equal to the cost per unit of exergy of the liquid air.
- Findingown data
The simple Claude, Heylandt, and Kapitza processes have the highest exergetic efficiencies (76.6%, 76.7%, and 76.6%, respectively).
“The simple Claude process, the Heylandt process and the Kapitza process reach the highest exergetic efficiencies (76.6 %, 76.7 % and 76.6), and have the lowest specific power requirement (1059, 1021 and 1059 kJ/kgliquid air) and the highest liquid yields (0.609, 0.629, 0.609).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The simple Claude, the Heylandt and the Kapitza processes reach the lowest specific power requirements for liquefaction among the assessed processes.
“The simple Claude, the Heylandt and the Kapitza processes were found to reach the highest exergetic efficiencies and liquid yields, as well as the lowest specific power requirements for liquefaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingcitation
The integration of cold storage decreases the specific power consumption to half.
“The integration of cold storage thus not only decreases the specific power consumption to half but also reduces the production cost of liquid air from 37-48 €/ton [35] to 18.4-25.9€/ton (Table 8).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The Claude-based liquefaction processes reached the highest exergetic efficiencies (76-82%).
“The Claude-based liquefaction processes reached the highest exergetic efficiencies (76-82%).”
- Also stated in: § 3.1. Energetic and Exergetic Analyses · plain
“The simple Claude process, the Heylandt process and the Kapitza process reach the highest exergetic efficiencies (76.6 %, 76.7 % and 76.6)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 3.1. Energetic and Exergetic Analyses · plain
- Findingown data
The Heylandt process reaches the highest round trip efficiency (50%).
“The Heylandt process reaches the highest RTE (50%) and the lowest specific power requirement (1021 kJ/kg).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
Regarding the average cost of the exergy of the final product c_P,tot, the Kapitza process performs best.
“Regarding the average cost of the exergy of the final product c 𝑃,𝑡𝑜𝑡 , the Kapitza process performs best.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The integration of the charging unit with cold exergy recovery significantly reduces the specific power requirement w_char of all liquefaction processes assessed.
“The integration of the charging unit with cold exergy recovery was shown to substantially augment the liquid yield γ, significantly reduce the specific power requirement w char and significantly improve the exergetic efficiency ε of all liquefaction processes assessed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For all liquefaction processes assessed, integrating cold storage multiplied the liquid yield.
“For all liquefaction processes assessed, the integration of cold storage was shown to multiply the liquid yield, reduce the specific power requirement by 50-70% and increase the exergetic efficiency by 30-100%.”
- Also stated in: § 3.1. Energetic and Exergetic Analyses · plain
“The integration of cold storage significantly increases the liquid yield.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § 3.1. Energetic and Exergetic Analyses · plain
- Findingown data
The simple Claude, Heylandt, and Kapitza processes have the highest liquid yields (0.609, 0.629, and 0.609, respectively).
“The simple Claude process, the Heylandt process and the Kapitza process reach the highest exergetic efficiencies (76.6 %, 76.7 % and 76.6), and have the lowest specific power requirement (1059, 1021 and 1059 kJ/kgliquid air) and the highest liquid yields (0.609, 0.629, 0.609).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The processes reached their maximum efficiency at different liquefaction pressures.
“The processes reached their maximum efficiency at different liquefaction pressures.”
- Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · plain
“The three processes reach their maximum efficiency at different pressures (Figure 7).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · plain
- Findingown data
The simple Claude, the Heylandt and the Kapitza processes reach the highest liquid yields among the assessed processes.
“The simple Claude, the Heylandt and the Kapitza processes were found to reach the highest exergetic efficiencies and liquid yields, as well as the lowest specific power requirements for liquefaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The specific power consumption of the presented air liquefaction processes with cold storage (≤264 kWh/ton) is approximately half the values reported in literature.
“The specific power consumption of the presented air liquefaction processes with cold storage (≤264 kWh/ton) was found to be approximately half the values reported in literature.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The three processes (Claude, Kapitza, Heylandt) reach their maximum efficiency at different pressures.
“The three processes reach their maximum efficiency at different pressures (Figure 7).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The integration of the charging unit with cold exergy recovery substantially augments the liquid yield γ of all liquefaction processes assessed.
“The integration of the charging unit with cold exergy recovery was shown to substantially augment the liquid yield γ, significantly reduce the specific power requirement w char and significantly improve the exergetic efficiency ε of all liquefaction processes assessed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The temperature difference in the MHE decreases with a reduction in cold feed and a simultaneous increase in hot feed.
“The temperature difference in the MHE decreases with a reduction in”
- Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · plain
“The temperature difference in the MHE decreases with a reduction in”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · plain
- Findingreasoning
The exergy of the product increases correspondingly with the integration of cold storage.
“The exergy of the product increases correspondingly:”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
All analyzed systems show an elevated exergoeconomic factor (f ≫ 0.5).
“All analyzed systems show an elevated exergoeconomic factor (𝑓 ≫ 0.5) which indicates that the costs associated with the purchase and maintenance of the components 𝑍 ̇𝑘 dominates the cost picture (𝑍 ̇𝑘 ≫ 𝐶 ̇𝐷,𝑘 ).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Assuming a TCI for the 40 MW discharge unit of 17.1 Mio €, the specific investment of the CES systems based on the Claude processes reach values lower than 1000 €/kWdis.
“Assuming a TCI for the 40 MW discharge unit of 17.1 Mio €, the specific investment of the CES systems based on the Claude processes reach values lower than 1000 €/kW dis , see Table 9.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The total capital investment (TCI) for the 40 MW discharge unit is 17.1 Mio €.
- Findingown data
The integration of the charging unit with cold exergy recovery significantly improves the exergetic efficiency ε of all liquefaction processes assessed.
“The integration of the charging unit with cold exergy recovery was shown to substantially augment the liquid yield γ, significantly reduce the specific power requirement w char and significantly improve the exergetic efficiency ε of all liquefaction processes assessed.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For all liquefaction processes assessed, integrating cold storage increased the exergetic efficiency by 30-100%.
“For all liquefaction processes assessed, the integration of cold storage was shown to multiply the liquid yield, reduce the specific power requirement by 50-70% and increase the exergetic efficiency by 30-100%.”
- Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · plain
“Thus, the exergetic efficiency is considerably augmented with the addition of cold storage:”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · plain
- Findingown data
The Kapitza process achieved the lowest production cost of liquid air (18.4 €/ton).
“The lowest production cost of liquid air (18.4 €/ton) and the lowest specific investment cost (<700 €/kW char ) were achieved by the Kapitza process.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The operation and maintenance costs are a percentage of the fixed capital investment ranging from 1.5% to 3% of the plant purchase price per year.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The system operates at low electricity prices.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The specific exergy costs of the entering cold storage media streams are equal to the cost per unit of exergy of the liquid air.
- Findingown data
The average cost of the exergy of the final product was the lowest in the Kapitza process.
“The average cost of the exergy of the final product was the lowest in the Kapitza process.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The thermodynamic performances of the Claude and Kapitza processes are almost the same.
“The thermodynamic performances of the Claude and Kapitza processes are almost the same.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
The average cost of exergy of the fuel c_F,tot is relatively high in comparison to the low average cost of the electricity c_electricity = 17.5 €/MWh.
“The average cost of exergy of the fuel c 𝐹,𝑡𝑜𝑡 is relatively high in comparison to the low average cost of the electricity c 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 17.5 €/MWh.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
By minimizing the splitting ratio for the respective compression pressure, a maximum efficiency line can be obtained.
“By minimizing the splitting ratio for the respective compression pressure, a maximum efficiency line can be obtained.”
- Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · plain
“By minimizing the splitting ratio for the respective compression pressure, a maximum efficiency line can be obtained.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · plain
- Findingown data
The exergoeconomic factor of several components in the Heylandt system is higher than in the other two systems.
“The exergoeconomic factor of several components in the Heylandt system is higher than in the other two systems.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The heat exchangers are responsible for 70-80% of the investment costs for all processes.
“The heat exchangers are responsible for 70-80 % of the investment costs for all processes.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The simple Claude, the Heylandt and the Kapitza processes reach the highest exergetic efficiencies among the assessed processes.
“The simple Claude, the Heylandt and the Kapitza processes were found to reach the highest exergetic efficiencies and liquid yields, as well as the lowest specific power requirements for liquefaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The Kapitza process-based system has the lowest specific investment cost.
“The economic analysis revealed that the Kapitza process-based system has the lowest specific investment cost and total revenue requirement.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The share of air liquefied increases with a reduction in the value of the splitting ratio.
“The share of air liquefied increases with a reduction in the value of the splitting ratio (r = .m EX / .m CM ), as a greater mass flow enters the MHE and throttling process.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The cost of exergy destruction in the components C_D,k is a minor contributor to the costs of the final product.
“The cost of exergy destruction in the components 𝐶 ̇𝐷,𝑘 is a minor contributor to the costs of the final product.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
The temperature difference of the two mixing streams is only 3.3 K.
“Reason for this is the temperature difference of only 3.3 K of the two mixing streams.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
For all liquefaction processes assessed, integrating cold storage reduced the specific power requirement by 50-70%.
“For all liquefaction processes assessed, the integration of cold storage was shown to multiply the liquid yield, reduce the specific power requirement by 50-70% and increase the exergetic efficiency by 30-100%.”
- Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · plain
“A substantial reduction of the specific power required to produce one kg of liquid air is observed for all processes ( .W char ↓).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · plain
- Premisecitation
The pilot plant operates with a Claude-based liquefaction process similar to the Kapitza configuration.
“The pilot plant operates with a Claude-based liquefaction process similar to the Kapitza configuration [26].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [26] Highview Power Storage Ltd. (2019, January 01). Available online: https://businessdocbox.com/Green_Solutions/77092496-Highview-power-storage-technology-and-performance-review.html.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Study design and conductnone given
The final results on system level are in line with the values reported for CES specific investment cost and RTE.
“The final results on system level were found to be in line with the values reported for CES specific investment cost and RTE.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The conclusion that the Kapitza process performs best regarding average cost of exergy of the final product is not expected to be changed with an increase in system size.
“This conclusion is not expected to be changed with increase in the system size.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The cost of heat exchangers increases linearly with scale for all systems equally.
- Interpretationown data
The Heylandt system is not competitive in regards to its specific investment per unit of exergy stored despite the slightly higher energy output of the process.
“The Heylandt system is not competitive in regards to its specific investment per unit of exergy stored despite the slightly higher energy output of the process, see Table 6.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Comparing the systems at a single pressure level is not sufficient.
“This confirms that comparing the systems at a single pressure level is not sufficient.”
- Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · boosted
“This confirms that comparing the systems at a single pressure level is not sufficient.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Also stated in: § E cold ↑). · boosted
- Interpretationreasoning
The Heylandt system leaves more room for improvement of the cost-effectiveness of the system.
“This indicates that the Heylandt system leaves more room for improvement of the cost-effectiveness of the system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
CES was evaluated cost-competitive with other bulk-energy storage technologies.
“Finally, CES was evaluated cost-competitive with other bulk-energy storage technologies.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductcitation
The results are validated by drawing comparison to values given in literature for air liquefaction processes without cold storage (Table 8) and values reported in previous publications for CES system characteristics (Table 9).
“Thus, the results are validated by drawing comparison to values given in literature for air liquefaction processes without cold storage (Table 8) and values reported in previous publications for CES system characteristics (Table 9).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The costs associated with the purchase and maintenance of the components dominate the cost picture (Z_k ≫ C_D,k).
“All analyzed systems show an elevated exergoeconomic factor (𝑓 ≫ 0.5) which indicates that the costs associated with the purchase and maintenance of the components 𝑍 ̇𝑘 dominates the cost picture (𝑍 ̇𝑘 ≫ 𝐶 ̇𝐷,𝑘 ).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Thermal integration at the system level is crucial to CES performance.
“The thermal integration at the system level is crucial to its performance, which is the reason why the integration of cold storage into the liquefaction process is the subject of this paper.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The adiabatic CES system's upper limit to efficiencies is 45-50%.
- Interpretationreasoning
The small difference in size of the MHE results in a noteworthy difference in costs between the Claude and Kapitza processes.
“The small difference in size of the MHE results in a noteworthy difference in costs.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisenone given
The performance of the Claude-based processes is dependent on the splitting ratio r.
“The performance of the Claude-based processes is dependent on the splitting ratio r.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
The Kapitza process is the most cost-effective liquefaction process to be considered for CES with cold storage.
“The exergoeconomic analysis demonstrated that the Kapitza process is the most cost-effective liquefaction process to be considered for CES with cold storage.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Different assumptions in the different references make comparing the various configurations problematic.
“In general, different assumptions are made in the different references, e.g., ideal dry air was assumed, heat and pressure losses in most components as well as heat losses in the cold box were neglected [12], or assumed lower than 8% [6] which is why comparing the various configurations is problematic.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [12] Peng, 2018, A study on performance of a liquid air energy storage system with packed bed units, Appl. Energy source
- cites [6] Morgan, R., Nelmes, S., Gibson, E., and Brett, G. (2015, January 1). An analysis of a large-scale liquid air energy storage system. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, London, UK. source
- Interpretationreasoning
The minimum splitting ratio is restricted by the minimum pinch temperature (∆T_MHE1,min → 1 K).
“The minimum splitting ratio is therefore restricted by the minimum pinch temperature (∆𝑇 𝑀𝐻𝐸1,𝑚𝑖𝑛 → 1 K).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The reduction in costs for the Heylandt system may not be substantial enough to surpass the other configurations, given its significantly higher average cost per unit of exergy of the product c_P,tot.
“Yet, regarding the significantly higher average cost per unit of exergy of the product c 𝑃,𝑡𝑜𝑡 (Table 7), the reduction in costs may not be substantial enough to surpass the other configurations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 9
- May combine two claims. 21
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe specific investment costs of the total CES system is approximated from 500-3,000 €/kW in literature.
“The specific investment costs of the total CES system is approximated from 500-3,000 €/kW [6,7,36] in literature.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites [6] Morgan, R., Nelmes, S., Gibson, E., and Brett, G. (2015, January 1). An analysis of a large-scale liquid air energy storage system. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, London, UK. source
- cites [7] Highview Enterprises Ltd. (2018, December 15). Highview Power Storage. Available online: http://www.highview-power.com/.
Not checked in the free run.
- cites [36] Chen, 2009, Progress in electrical energy storage system: A critical review, Prog. Nat. Sci. source
The CES row of Table 1, reproduced in the Concluding remarks and perspective section (page not available in our copy), gives a capital cost of $200–300/kW, not €500–3,000/kW. Section 5.4 discusses CES as relatively low-cost but does not give the claimed range. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationHighview Power Storage Ltd. base their charging unit on the Claude process relying on the maturity of the process and the trouble-free scale-up.
“Highview Power Storage Ltd. base their charging unit on the Claude process relying on the maturity of the process and the trouble-free scale-up [25].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [25] Brett, 2014, The application of liquid air energy storage for large scale long duration solutions to grid balancing, EPJ Web Conf. source
Section 3, “Highview LAES system,” says Highview uses a modified Claude cycle refrigerator for charging. The Abstract describes mature components, and Section 5, “Scale,” describes increasing capacity with multiple commercially available liquefiers. The paper does not say Highview chose the Claude process because of its maturity or that scale-up is trouble-free. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationThe high exergy density of CES (120-200 kWh/m3) and the absence of geographical constraints remain the technology's greatest advantage.
“The high exergy density of CES (120-200 kWh/m 3 [36])-the absence of geographical constraints-remains the technologies greatest advantage.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites [36] Chen, 2009, Progress in electrical energy storage system: A critical review, Prog. Nat. Sci. source
Section 4.10.1 (page unavailable) describes CES as having relatively high energy density, but gives 100–200 Wh/kg, not the cited 120–200 kWh/m³ exergy density. The citation is attached to the numerical claim, which this passage does not establish. The passage also does not identify freedom from geographical constraints as CES’s greatest advantage. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenThe average cost of exergy of the heat supplied to heat storage has the lowest value for the Heylandt process, while the average cost of exergy of liquid air is the most expensive.
“The average cost of exergy of the heat supplied to heat storage has the lowest value for the Heylandt process while the average cost of exergy of liquid air is the most expensive.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe total revenue requirements for the Claude, Heylandt and Kapitza systems amount to 2,770 €/a, 2,915 €/a and 2,670 €/a respectively.
“The total revenue requirements for the Claude, Heylandt and Kapitza systems amount to 2,770 €/a, 2,915 €/a and 2,670 €/a respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenThe levelized cost of discharged electricity (LCOEdis) of the CES systems based on the Claude, the Heylandt, and the Kapitza process are expected to reach 175.6 €/MWhel, 175.3 €/MWhel and 172.0 €/MWhel, respectively.
“The levelized cost of discharged electricity (LCOE dis ) of the CES systems based on the Claude, the Heylandt, and the Kapitza process are expected to reach 175.6 €/MWh el , 175.3 €/MWh el and 172.0 €/MWh el , respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenThe charging power, liquefaction capacity, and storage capacity are similar for all systems.
“The charging power 𝑊 ̇𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 , the liquefaction capacity 𝑚̇𝑙 𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 , and the storage capacity (𝑊 ̇𝑑𝑖𝑠 • 𝜏 𝑑𝑖𝑠 ) are similar for all systems.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe optimal configuration of the Claude and the Kapitza process is at about 100 bar, reaching 80% exergetic efficiency.
“The optimal configuration of the Claude and the Kapitza process is at about 100 bar reaching 80 % exergetic efficiency.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningFor liquefaction pressures of 120 bar and above, the Heylandt process performs better, reaching its optimum of approximately 81.2% at 130 bar.
“For liquefaction pressures of 120 bar and above the Heylandt process performs better reaching its optimum of approximately 81.2 % (at 130 bar).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor liquefaction pressures of 120 bar and above, the Heylandt process performs better, reaching its optimum of approximately 81.2% exergetic efficiency at 130 bar.
“For liquefaction pressures of 120 bar and above the Heylandt process performs better reaching its optimum of approximately 81.2% (at 130 bar).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe share of air liquefied increases with a reduction in the splitting ratio r, because a greater mass flow enters the MHE and throttling process.
“The share of air liquefied increases with a reduction in the value of the splitting ratio (𝑟 = 𝑚̇𝐸 𝑋 𝑚̇𝐶 𝑀 ⁄ ), as a greater mass flow enters the MHE and throttling process.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor liquefaction pressures of 125 bar and higher, the Heylandt process reaches the highest exergetic efficiencies; at lower pressures, the Claude and the Kapitza processes are superior.
“The sensitivity analysis showed that for liquefaction pressures of 125 bar and higher, the Heylandt process reaches the highest exergetic efficiencies, at lower pressures the Claude and the Kapitza process are superior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe liquid yield and the charging pressure of the Heylandt process are slightly higher than for the other systems.
“The liquid yield 𝛾 and the charging pressure 𝑝 𝐶𝑀 of the Heylandt process is slightly higher.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataDespite the liquid yield of the precooled Linde reaching a compatible value (0.453), its specific power requirement and exergetic efficiency cannot level with the Claude-based configurations.
“Despite the liquid yield of the precooled Linde reaching a compatible value (0.453), its specific power requirement and exergetic efficiency cannot level with the Claude-based configurations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe temperature difference of the two mixing streams is only 3.3 K, which explains why the thermodynamic performances of the Claude and Kapitza processes are almost the same.
“Reason for this is the temperature difference of only 3.3 K of the two mixing streams.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe average cost of low-temperature exergy supplied by the cold storage c_q,cold is relatively high and amounts to the average cost of exergy of the liquid air c_liquid air, which explains the relatively high average cost of exergy of the fuel.
“Reason for this is the average cost of low-temperature exergy supplied by the cold storage c 𝑞,𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 which is relatively high and amounts to the average cost of exergy of the liquid air c 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 .”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe Claude process and its modifications are the most commonly employed process in commercial air liquefaction plants, as its efficiency is higher than that of the Linde process.
“The Claude process and its modifications are the most commonly employed process in commercial air liquefaction plants, as its efficiency is higher than that of the Linde process [23].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [23] Barron, R.F. (1985). Cryogenic Systems, Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press. [2nd ed.].
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe introduction of cold storage doubled the liquid yield of the liquefaction process of the analyzed system.
“The effect of cold recycle was firstly quantified by the authors as the introduction of cold storage doubled the liquid yield of the liquefaction process of the analyzed system [9].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Hamdy, 2017, Cryogenics-based energy storage: Evaluation of cold exergy recovery cycles, Energy source
May combine two claims.
Study design and conductnone givenThe final RTE of 47-49% are in line with the expected 40-60%, which confirms the presented results.
“The final RTE of 47-49 % are also in line with the expected 40-60 %, which confirms the presented results.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationThe operation pressures for the different liquefaction processes differ.
“The operation pressures for the different liquefaction processes differ [23].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [23] Barron, R.F. (1985). Cryogenic Systems, Oxford University Press, Clarendon Press. [2nd ed.].
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisereasoningThe application of a cold expander avoids part of the exergy destruction in the throttling process and reduces the required power for liquefaction by the power output of the expander.
“The application of a cold expander avoids part of the exergy destruction in the throttling process and reduces the required power for liquefaction by the power output of the expander ( . W char = ∑ . W CM - . W EX ).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationLiquefaction accounts for more than 70% of the overall exergy destruction of the CES system.
“The liquefaction was found to account for more than 70% of the overall exergy destruction (MW) of the CES system by the authors in a comparative exergy analysis of two 10 MW CES systems [9].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] Hamdy, 2017, Cryogenics-based energy storage: Evaluation of cold exergy recovery cycles, Energy source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationCold recovery and storage significantly increase system efficiency.
“One of the key findings from the testing of the first pilot plant was the significant increase of system efficiency by cold recovery and storage [6].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [6] Morgan, R., Nelmes, S., Gibson, E., and Brett, G. (2015, January 1). An analysis of a large-scale liquid air energy storage system. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, London, UK. source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe competing bulk-energy storage technologies are also capital intense, which makes CES competitive with compressed air energy storage (CAES), pumped hydro storage (PHS) and hydrogen-based energy storage (H2).
“The competing bulk-energy storage technology are also capital intense which makes CES competitive with compressed air energy storage (CAES), pumped hydro storage (PHS) and hydrogen-based energy storage (H2).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMost modern liquefiers utilize expansion turbines proposed by Kapitza and most high-pressure air liquefaction plants operate with the Heylandt process.
“Most modern liquefiers utilize expansion turbines proposed by Kapitza [10,24] and most high-pressure air liquefaction plants operate with the Heylandt process.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [10] Kerry, F.G. (2007). Industrial Gas Handbook: Gas Separation and Purification, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC. source
- cites [24] Herron, D.M., and Agrawal, R. (2000). Air Liquefaction: Distillation, Air Products and Chemicals, Inc.
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCES exergy densities are approximately two orders of magnitude higher than pumped hydro and compressed air energy storage, reaching values higher than 430 kJ/kg.
“CES exergy densities are by approximately two orders of magnitudes higher than of competing technologies such as pumped hydro and compressed air energy storage reaching values higher than 430 kJ/kg.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] Putselyk, S. (2019). Cryogenic Energy Storage: Characteristics, Potential Applications and Economic Benefit. Recent Developments in Cryogenics Research, Nova Science, Inc.
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenRegarding the RTE of PHS and CAES, CES efficiency is still the greatest obstacle.
“Regarding the RTE of PHS and CAES, CES efficiency is still the greatest obstacle.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe liquefaction process is the key part of the CES system because the discharge unit is relatively simple and efficient.
“The significance of the liquefaction process to the CES's performance was addressed by [8] as”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8] Li, Y. (2011). Cryogen Based Energy Storage: Process Modelling and Optimization. [Ph.D. Thesis, University of Leeds].
Not checked in the free run.
The paper relies on this without support.
The adiabatic CES system's upper limit to efficiencies is 45-50%.
“Yet, the adiabatic CES systems upper limit to efficiencies is 45-50%.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The liquid yield increases with liquefaction pressure.
“The liquid yield increases with liquefaction pressure.”
The paper relies on this without support.
With increased pressures, the power consumption of the compression process increases as well.
“Yet, with increased pressures, the power consumption of the compression process increases as well.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The operation and maintenance costs are a percentage of the fixed capital investment ranging from 1.5% to 3% of the plant purchase price per year.
“The operation and maintenance costs (OMC) are assumed as a percentage of the fixed capital investment (FCI) which ranges from 1.5% to 3% of the plant purchase price per year [35].”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The system operates at low electricity prices.
“The system is assumed to operate at low electricity prices.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The specific exergy costs of the entering cold storage media streams are equal to the cost per unit of exergy of the liquid air.
“The specific exergy costs of the entering cold storage media streams are assumed equal to the cost per unit of exergy of the liquid air:”
The paper relies on this without support.
No previous publications considered the effect of integrating cold storage on the selection of the liquefaction process.
“No previous publications considered the effect of integrating cold storage on the selection of the liquefaction process.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The total capital investment (TCI) for the 40 MW discharge unit is 17.1 Mio €.
“Assuming a TCI for the 40 MW discharge unit of 17.1 Mio €, the specific investment of the CES systems based on the Claude processes reach values lower than 1000 €/kW dis , see Table 9.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The cost of heat exchangers increases linearly with scale for all systems equally.
“The reason is that the heat exchangers are the major contributors to the costs of the liquefaction systems, and the cost of heat exchanger increase linearly with scale-for all systems equally.”
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“Methods based on the Carnot factor always lead to non-linear graphical representations, which means the result becomes challenging to interpret, especially as useful performance targets (Hamdy et al. 2019).”
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- Authors
- Hamdy, S., Moser, F., Morosuk, T., & Tsatsaronis, G.
- Affiliations
- Technische Universität Berlin (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Morosuk, Tatiana
- Tsatsaronis, George
- Venue
- Energies
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2019-02-04
- Volume
- 12
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 493
- ISSN
- 1996-1073 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2913187146
- Cited by
- 65
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 6
- FWCI
- 5.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Energies (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DepositOnce (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Technische Universität Berlin – Universitätsbibliothek (cc-by)
- Funders
- Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst
- Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (57128418)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Thermodynamic and Exergetic Analyses of Power and Cooling Systems
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Advanced Thermodynamic Systems and Engines
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Aerospace Engineering › Spacecraft and Cryogenic Technologies
- Keywords
- cryogenic energy storage, gas liquefaction, exergy analysis, round-trip efficiency, cold storage, liquefied air, exergy efficiency, production costs, investment costs
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