Assessing Vulnerability to Urban Heat: A Study of Disproportionate Heat Exposure and Access to Refuge by Socio-Demographic Status in Portland, Oregon
Open accessAbstract
Extreme urban heat is a powerful environmental stressor which poses a significant threat to human health and well-being. Exacerbated by the urban heat island phenomenon, heat events are expected to become more intense and frequent as climate change progresses, though we have limited understanding of the impact of such events on vulnerable populations at a neighborhood or census block group level. Focusing on the City of Portland, Oregon, this study aimed to determine which socio-demographic populations experience disproportionate exposure to extreme heat, as well as the level of access to refuge in the form of public cooling centers or residential central air conditioning. During a 2014 heat wave, temperature data were recorded using a vehicle-traverse collection method, then extrapolated to determine average temperature at the census block group level. Socio-demographic factors including income, race, education, age, and English speaking ability were tested using statistical assessments to identify significant relationships with heat exposure and access to refuge from extreme heat. Results indicate that groups with limited adaptive capacity, including those in poverty and non-white populations, are at higher risk for heat exposure, suggesting an emerging concern of environmental justice as it relates to climate change. The paper concludes by emphasizing the importance of cultural sensitivity and inclusion, in combination with effectively distributing cooling centers in areas where the greatest burden befalls vulnerable populations.
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Research linking intracity differences in heat exposure to sociodemographic factors has typically been done in an ad hoc manner for a small number of individual cities.
“Instead, research linking intracity differences in heat exposure to sociodemographic factors has typically been done in an ad hoc manner for a small number of individual cities23,29–32.”
From Disproportionate exposure to urban heat island intensity across major US cities (2021) · cites this paper as [23]
The Methods (§2.3) link within-city heat exposure to sociodemographic factors, and the Conclusions (§5) say the findings are specific to Portland. The paper therefore supports the citation as an example of a single-city study, but it does not establish that such research has typically been ad hoc or confined to a small number of cities. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredRacialized populations in Portland experience disproportionate exposure to extreme heat and have less access to refuge from high temperatures, be it green spaces or cooling centers.
“studies on the city have recently shown that racialized populations experience disproportionate exposure to extreme heat and have less access to refuge from high temperatures, be it green spaces or cooling centers (Nesbitt and Meitner, 2016;Voelkel et al., 2018).”
From Intersectional climate justice: A conceptual pathway for bridging adaptation planning, transformative action, and social equity (2022) · cites this paper as Voelkel et al., 2018
The Results (§3.3.1) link higher heat exposure in Portland to higher shares of several non-white populations. But §3.3.3 finds less access to public heat refuges for Asian residents and more access for Black residents; the study does not assess access to green spaces as refuge. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPortland has a long history of environmental racism, from redlining policies in the 20th century to the ongoing exclusion of non-white and low-income populations from green amenities.
“Portland has a long history of environmental racism, from redlining policies in the 20th century to the ongoing exclusion of non-white and low-income populations from green amenities, as studies on the city have recently shown that racialized populations experience disproportionate exposure to extreme heat and have less access to refuge from high temperatures, be it green spaces or cooling centers”
From Intersectional climate justice: A conceptual pathway for bridging adaptation planning, transformative action, and social equity (2022) · cites this paper as Voelkel et al., 2018
The Discussion (section 4; page unavailable) says Portland has placed large trees and other heat-mitigating features in higher-income neighborhoods, from which low-income and minority communities have historically been excluded. The Conclusions (section 5) support disproportionate heat exposure, but the paper does not document twentieth-century redlining or ongoing exclusion from green amenities. The Results (section 3.3.3) also do not support a blanket claim that racialized populations have less access to cooling centers: they report greater access for Black residents and less access for Asian residents. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAdaptation projects are shown to have a greater social impact on poorer neighborhoods, where residents are generally more vulnerable to heat (e.g., due to advanced age or pre-existing chronic medical conditions) and have less access to cooling options.
“Although this choice does not diminish the environmental value of such initiatives, adaptation projects are shown to have a greater social impact on poorer neighborhoods, where residents are generally more vulnerable to heat (e.g., due to advanced age or pre-existing chronic medical conditions) and have less access to cooling options (Nesbitt and Meitner, 2016;Voelkel et al., 2018).”
From Intersectional climate justice: A conceptual pathway for bridging adaptation planning, transformative action, and social equity (2022) · cites this paper as Voelkel et al., 2018
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAdaptation projects are shown to have a greater social impact on poorer neighborhoods, where residents are generally more vulnerable to heat and have less access to cooling options.
“Although this choice does not diminish the environmental value of such initiatives, adaptation projects are shown to have a greater social impact on poorer neighborhoods, where residents are generally more vulnerable to heat (e.g., due to advanced age or pre-existing chronic medical conditions) and have less access to cooling options(Nesbitt and Meitner, 2016;Voelkel et al., 2018).”
From Intersectional climate justice: A conceptual pathway for bridging adaptation planning, transformative action, and social equity (2022) · cites this paper as Voelkel et al., 2018
The Discussion (section 4; page unavailable) reports higher heat exposure around affordable housing and links low adaptive capacity with high exposure. It also says access to cooling refuge varies by socio-demographic status. The paper does not measure the social impact of adaptation projects or establish that poorer neighborhoods specifically have less access to cooling; it says health-related sensitivity was not assessed. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
In urban heat research, vulnerability is commonly associated with environmental, demographic, social, and urban-form characteristics that increase sensitivity or reduce coping capacity under hot conditions.
“In urban heat research, vulnerability is commonly associated with environmental, demographic, social, and urban-form characteristics that increase sensitivity or reduce coping capacity under hot conditions [33-35].”
From GPU-Accelerated Deep Learning for Heatwave Prediction and Urban Heat Risk Assessment (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
The Introduction describes heat vulnerability in terms of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity, and identifies income and social cohesion as factors related to coping capacity. It also links urban form, such as impervious surfaces and scarce vegetation, to higher heat exposure—not specifically to greater sensitivity or reduced coping capacity. The Discussion says the study did not assess sensitivity. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSmall-scale case studies have found disparities in the distribution of urban heat island intensity within single cities or differences in exposure among population groups within a few cities in different countries.
“Small-scale case studies have found disparities in the distribution of urban heat island intensity within single cities23 or differences in exposure among population groups within a few cities in different countries24–26.”
From Disproportionate exposure to urban heat island intensity across major US cities (2021) · cites this paper as [23]
These findings provide comprehensive evidence supporting the narrative presented by earlier case studies that minority and low-income communities bear the brunt of the urban heat island effect, air temperature, and heat stress in individual or multicity studies.
“These findings provide comprehensive evidence supporting the narrative presented by earlier case studies that minority and low-income communities bear the brunt of the urban heat island effect23,25,26,29–32,35, air temperature23, and heat stress31 in individual or multicity studies.”
From Disproportionate exposure to urban heat island intensity across major US cities (2021) · cites this paper as [23]
Several recent studies have shown that vulnerability-oriented heat assessments benefit from integrating both social indicators and spatial characteristics of the urban fabric.
“Several recent studies have shown that vulnerability-oriented heat assessments benefit from integrating both social indicators and spatial characteristics of the urban fabric [34, 35].”
From GPU-Accelerated Deep Learning for Heatwave Prediction and Urban Heat Risk Assessment (2026) · cites this paper as [34]
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- Authors
- Voelkel, J., Hellman, D., Sakuma, R., & Shandas, V.
- Affiliations
- Portland State University (US)
- Peace Winds Japan, Tokyo 151-0063, Japan
- Corresponding author
- Shandas, Vivek
- Venue
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2018-03-30
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 640
- ISSN
- 1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5923682
- OpenAlex
- W2794659326
- Cited by
- 278
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 49 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 52 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 7.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PDXScholar (Portland State University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1444755)
- Portland State University
- U.S. Forest Service (17-DG-11132544-014)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Climate Change and Health Impacts
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Environmental Justice and Health Disparities
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Urban Heat Island Mitigation
- Keywords
- urban heat, urban heat island, heat exposure, vulnerable populations, sociodemographic disparities, cooling centers, central air conditioning, environmental justice, climate change, heat waves, poverty, race, Portland, Oregon, census block groups
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Cities, Environmental Exposure, Hot Temperature, Humans, Middle Aged, Oregon, Residence Characteristics, Socioeconomic Factors, Urban Health, Heat Stress Disorders, Vulnerable Populations, Health Status Disparities, Young Adult, Climate Change
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