The Effects of Historical Housing Policies on Resident Exposure to Intra-Urban Heat: A Study of 108 US Urban Areas
Open accessAbstract
The increasing intensity, duration, and frequency of heat waves due to human-caused climate change puts historically underserved populations in a heightened state of precarity, as studies observe that vulnerable communities—especially those within urban areas in the United States—are disproportionately exposed to extreme heat. Lacking, however, are insights into fundamental questions about the role of historical housing policies in cauterizing current exposure to climate inequities like intra-urban heat. Here, we explore the relationship between “redlining”, or the historical practice of refusing home loans or insurance to whole neighborhoods based on a racially motivated perception of safety for investment, with present-day summertime intra-urban land surface temperature anomalies. Through a spatial analysis of 108 urban areas in the United States, we ask two questions: (1) how do historically redlined neighborhoods relate to current patterns of intra-urban heat? and (2) do these patterns vary by US Census Bureau region? Our results reveal that 94% of studied areas display consistent city-scale patterns of elevated land surface temperatures in formerly redlined areas relative to their non-redlined neighbors by as much as 7 °C. Regionally, Southeast and Western cities display the greatest differences while Midwest cities display the least. Nationally, land surface temperatures in redlined areas are approximately 2.6 °C warmer than in non-redlined areas. While these trends are partly attributable to the relative preponderance of impervious land cover to tree canopy in these areas, which we also examine, other factors may also be driving these differences. This study reveals that historical housing policies may, in fact, be directly responsible for disproportionate exposure to current heat events.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The extent to which the ref. 26 finding translates into current racial or income disparities remains unclear due to substantial demographic changes and urban growth patterns over the past 90 years.
“In light of substantial demographic changes and urban growth patterns over the past 90 years, however, the extent to which this finding translates into current racial or income disparities remains unclear.”
From Disproportionate exposure to urban heat island intensity across major US cities (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
The Discussion and Conclusions says that formerly redlined neighborhoods remain predominantly lower-income communities of color and are presently hotter than non-redlined neighborhoods. The Introduction likewise describes the persistence of racial and income differences. Rather than saying demographic change makes the finding's relevance to current disparities unclear, the paper explicitly connects its heat finding to those disparities. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSmall-scale case studies have found disparities in the distribution of urban heat island intensity within single cities or differences in exposure among population groups within a few cities in different countries.
“Small-scale case studies have found disparities in the distribution of urban heat island intensity within single cities23 or differences in exposure among population groups within a few cities in different countries24–26.”
From Disproportionate exposure to urban heat island intensity across major US cities (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
The Discussion and Conclusions reports that formerly redlined neighborhoods, which remain predominantly lower-income communities and communities of color, were hotter than non-redlined neighborhoods. This supports differences in heat exposure among population groups, but the paper analyzes 108 US cities, not a small-scale study of a few cities. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredRef. 26 found that neighborhoods that were redlined in the 1930s have summer surface temperature profiles that are significantly higher than other coded residential areas in 108 US cities.
“In 108 US cities, ref. 26 find that neighborhoods that were redlined in the 1930s have summer surface temperature profiles that are significantly higher than other coded residential areas”
From Disproportionate exposure to urban heat island intensity across major US cities (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
These findings provide comprehensive evidence supporting the narrative presented by earlier case studies that minority and low-income communities bear the brunt of the urban heat island effect, air temperature, and heat stress in individual or multicity studies.
“These findings provide comprehensive evidence supporting the narrative presented by earlier case studies that minority and low-income communities bear the brunt of the urban heat island effect23,25,26,29–32,35, air temperature23, and heat stress31 in individual or multicity studies.”
From Disproportionate exposure to urban heat island intensity across major US cities (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Local Climate Zones for Urban Temperature Studies
Stewart, I. D., & Oke, T. R. (2012) · Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society · doi:10.1175/bams-d-11-00019.1 · Cited by 4,512 · see citing works
More Intense, More Frequent, and Longer Lasting Heat Waves in the 21st Century
Meehl, G. A., & Tebaldi, C. (2004) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1098704 · Cited by 4,322 · see citing works
(2015) · Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing · doi:10.1016/s0099-1112(15)30100-2 · Cited by 2,584 · see citing works
Income Inequality and Income Segregation
Reardon, S. F., & Bischoff, K. (2011) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/657114 · Cited by 1,067 · see citing works
The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit
Burnham, R. A., & Sugrue, T. J. (1998) · Michigan Historical Review · doi:10.2307/20173746 · Cited by 1,045 · see citing works
Ziter, C. D., Pedersen, E. J., Kucharik, C. J., & Turner, M. G. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1817561116 · Cited by 891 · see citing works
Urban heat island impacts on building energy consumption: A review of approaches and findings
Li, X., Zhou, Y., Yu, S., Jia, G., Li, H., & Li, W. (2019) · Energy · doi:10.1016/j.energy.2019.02.183 · Cited by 792 · see citing works
Urban green space cooling effect in cities
Aram, F., García, E. H., Solgi, E., et al. (2019) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01339 · Cited by 792 · see citing works
Algorithm for Automated Mapping of Land Surface Temperature Using LANDSAT 8 Satellite Data
Avdan, U., & JOVANOVSKA, G. (2016) · Journal of Sensors · doi:10.1155/2016/1480307 · Cited by 791 · see citing works
Santamouris, M. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.060 · Cited by 640 · see citing works
Trees Grow on Money: Urban Tree Canopy Cover and Environmental Justice
Schwarz, K., Fragkias, M., Boone, C. G., Zhou, W., McHale, M. R., Grove, J. M., O’Neil-Dunne, J. P. M., McFadden, J. P., Buckley, G. L., Childers, D. L., et al. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0122051 · Cited by 635 · see citing works
The 2003 Heat Wave in France: Dangerous Climate Change Here and Now
Marc Poumadère, A., Mays, C., Mer, S. L., & Blong, R. (2005) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2005.00694.x · Cited by 550 · see citing works
Mortality in Chicago attributed to the July 1995 heat wave.
Whitman, S., Good, G., Donoghue, E. R., Benbow, N., Shou, W., & Mou, S. (1997) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.87.9.1515 · Cited by 507 · see citing works
Uejio, C. K., Wilhelmi, O. V., Golden, J. S., Mills, D. M., Gulino, S. P., & Samenow, J. P. (2011) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.12.005 · Cited by 504 · see citing works
Yang, L., Huang, C., Homer, C. G., Wylie, B. K., & Coan, M. J. (2003) · Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing · doi:10.5589/m02-098 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
Gentrification, Displacement, and the Role of Public Investment
Zuk, M., Bierbaum, A. H., Chapple, K., Górska, K., & Loukaitou‐Sideris, A. (2017) · Journal of Planning Literature · doi:10.1177/0885412217716439 · Cited by 458 · see citing works
Spatial distribution of urban building energy consumption by end use
Howard, B., Parshall, L., Thompson, J. W., Hammer, S. A., Dickinson, J., & Modi, V. (2011) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2011.10.061 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
Li, X., Zhou, Y., Asrar, G., Imhoff, M. L., & Li, X. (2017) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.229 · Cited by 410 · see citing works
Kim, H. H. (1992) · International Journal of Remote Sensing · doi:10.1080/01431169208904271 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Rising heat wave trends in large US cities
Habeeb, D., Vargo, J., & Stone, B. (2014) · Natural Hazards · doi:10.1007/s11069-014-1563-z · Cited by 328 · see citing works
He, B. (2019) · Sustainable Cities and Society · doi:10.1016/j.scs.2019.101647 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Voelkel, J., Hellman, D., Sakuma, R., & Shandas, V. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15040640 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Self-citationCook, M. J., Schott, J. R., Mandel, J., et al. (2014) · Remote Sensing · doi:10.3390/rs61111244 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Effect of night-time temperatures on cause and age-specific mortality in London
Murage, P., Hajat, S., & Kovats, S. R. (2017) · Environmental Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ee9.0000000000000005 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Modeling Percent Tree Canopy Cover
Coulston, J. W., Moisen, G. G., Wilson, B. T., Finco, M. V., Cohen, W. B., & Brewer, C. K. (2012) · Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing · doi:10.14358/pers.78.7.715 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Sheng, L., Tang, X., You, H., Gu, Q., & Hu, H. (2016) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.09.009 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Li, Y., Zhang, H., & Kainz, W. (2012) · International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation · doi:10.1016/j.jag.2012.05.001 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
A Case-Only Study of Vulnerability to Heat Wave–Related Mortality in New York City (2000–2011)
Madrigano, J., Ito, K., Johnson, S., Kinney, P. L., & Matte, T. (2015) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1408178 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Spatial patterns of natural hazards mortality in the United States
Borden, K. A., & Cutter, S. L. (2008) · International Journal of Health Geographics · doi:10.1186/1476-072x-7-64 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
A century of sprawl in the United States
Barrington-Leigh, C. P., & Millard‐Ball, A. (2015) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1504033112 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Tens of thousands additional deaths annually in cities of China between 1.5 °C and 2.0 °C warming
Wang, Y., Wang, A., Zhai, J., Tao, H., Jiang, T., Su, B., Yang, J., Wang, G., Liu, Q., Gao, C., et al. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-11283-w · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Declining urban and community tree cover in the United States
Nowak, D. J., & Greenfield, E. J. (2018) · Urban forestry & urban greening · doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2018.03.006 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
An energy and mortality impact assessment of the urban heat island in the US
Lowe, S. A. (2015) · Environmental Impact Assessment Review · doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2015.10.004 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Review of World Urban Heat Islands: Many Linked to Increased Mortality
Wong, K. V., Paddon, A., & Jimenez, A. (2013) · Journal of Energy Resources Technology · doi:10.1115/1.4023176 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Eisenman, D. P., Wilhalme, H. M., Tseng, C., Chester, M., English, P. B., Pincetl, S., Fraser, A. M., Vangala, S., & Dhaliwal, S. K. (2016) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2016.08.007 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Integrating Satellite and Ground Measurements for Predicting Locations of Extreme Urban Heat
Shandas, V., Voelkel, J. L., Williams, J. R., & Hoffman, J. S. (2019) · Climate · doi:10.3390/cli7010005 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Self-citationTeaford, J. C. (1990) · Johns Hopkins University Press eBooks · doi:10.56021/9780801839719 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Heat-health action plans in Europe: Challenges ahead and how to tackle them
Martínez, G. S., Linares, C., Ayuso-Álvarez, A., Kendrovski, V., Boeckmann, M., & Díaz, J. (2019) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2019.108548 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
White-Newsome, J. L., Brines, S. J., Brown, D. G., Dvonch, J. T., Gronlund, C. J., Zhang, K., Oswald, E. M., & O’Neill, M. S. (2013) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1206176 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Hamstead, Z. A., Kremer, P., Larondelle, N., McPhearson, T., & Haase, D. (2016) · Ecological Indicators · doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.10.014 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
An Evidence-Based Public Health Approach to Climate Change Adaptation
Hess, J. J., Eidson, M., Tlumak, J. E., Raab, K. K., & Luber, G. (2014) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1307396 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Combined vegetation volume and “greenness” affect urban air temperature
Davis, A. Y., Jung, J., Pijanowski, B. C., & Minor, E. S. (2016) · Applied Geography · doi:10.1016/j.apgeog.2016.04.010 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Makido, Y., Hellman, D., & Shandas, V. (2019) · Atmosphere · doi:10.3390/atmos10050282 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Self-citationChuang, W.-C., & Gober, P. A. (2015) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1307868 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Lo, Y. T. E., Mitchell, D. M., Gasparrini, A., Vicedo-Cabrera, A. M., Ebi, K. L., Frumhoff, P. C., Millar, R. J., Roberts, W., Sera, F., Sparrow, S., et al. (2019) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau4373 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Heat stress-resistant building design in the Australian context
Hatvani-Kovacs, G., Belusko, M., Pockett, J., & Boland, J. W. (2017) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.10.025 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Developing High-Resolution Descriptions of Urban Heat Islands: A Public Health Imperative
Voelkel, J., Shandas, V., & Haggerty, B. (2016) · Preventing Chronic Disease · doi:10.5888/pcd13.160099 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationJun, M., Kim, J.-I., Kim, H.-J., Yeo, C.-H., & Hyun, J. Y. (2017) · Journal of Urban Planning and Development · doi:10.1061/(asce)up.1943-5444.0000396 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Stent (or Dagger?) in the Heart of Town: Urban Freeways in Syracuse, 1944—1967
DiMento, J. F. C. (2009) · Journal of Planning History · doi:10.1177/1538513208330768 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Swaid, H. (1993) · Physical Geography · doi:10.1080/02723646.1993.10642484 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Nardone, A., Thakur, N., & Balmes, J. R. (2019) · doi:10.1164/ajrccm-conference.2019.199.1_meetingabstracts.a7054 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The early developmental history of concrete block in America
Hall, J. P. (2009) · Cardinal Scholar (Ball State University) · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Aaronson, D.; Hartley, D.; Mazumder, B. The Effects of the 1930s HOLC "Redlining" Maps. In Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago Working Paper No. 2017-12; Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago: Chicago, IL, USA, 2017; pp. 1-102.
- Mitchell, B.; Franco, J. HOLC "Redlining" Maps: The Persistent Structure of Segregation and Economic Inequality; National Community Reinvestment Coalition: Washington, DC, USA, 2018; pp. 1-29.
- Lipsitz, G. How Racism Takes Place; Temple University Press: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2011.
- Hirsch, A. Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960; Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1983.
- Alam, M.; Sanjayan, J.; Zou, P.X.W. Chapter Eleven-Balancing Energy Efficiency and Heat Wave Resilience in Building Design. In Climate Adaptation Engineering;
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Disproportionate exposure to urban heat island intensity across major US cities
Hsu, A., Sheriff, G., Chakraborty, T., & Manya, D. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22799-5 · Cited by 846 · see citing works
Climate change, fossil-fuel pollution, and children's health
Perera, F., & Nadeau, K. (2022) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmra2117706 · Cited by 420 · see citing works
Residential housing segregation and urban tree canopy in 37 US Cities
Locke, D. H., Hall, B., Grove, J. M., Pickett, S. T. A., Ogden, L. A., Aoki, C., Boone, C. G., & O’Neil-Dunne, J. P. M. (2021) · npj Urban Sustainability · doi:10.1038/s42949-021-00022-0 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
Urban Heat Management and the Legacy of Redlining
Wilson, B. (2020) · Journal of the American Planning Association · doi:10.1080/01944363.2020.1759127 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Chakraborty, T., Hsu, A., Manya, D., & Sheriff, G. (2020) · ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing · doi:10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2020.07.021 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
McDonald, R. I., Biswas, T., Sachar, C., Housman, I., Boucher, T. M., Balk, D., Nowak, D., Spotswood, E., Stanley, C. K., & Leyk, S. (2021) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0249715 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Parker, E. R., Mo, J., & Goodman, R. S. (2022) · The Journal of Climate Change and Health · doi:10.1016/j.joclim.2022.100162 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Promoting equity in retreat through voluntary property buyout programs
Kraan, C. M., Hino, M., Niemann, J., Siders, A. R., & Mach, K. J. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences · doi:10.1007/s13412-021-00688-z · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Carter, S. E., Gibbons, F. X., & Beach, S. R. H. (2021) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579421001073 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Grabowski, Z. J., Wijsman, K., Tomateo, C., & McPhearson, T. (2022) · Environmental Science & Policy · doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2022.09.022 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The Built Environment and Pediatric Health
Bole, A., Bernstein, A., White, M. J., COUNCIL ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND CLIMATE CHANGE, Bole, A., Balk, S. J., Byron, L. G., Huerta-Montañez, G. M., Landrigan, P. J., Marcus, S. M., et al. (2024) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2023-064773 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Fractured landscapes: The racialization of home buyout programs and climate adaptation
Zavar, E., & Fischer, L. A. (2021) · Current Research in Environmental Sustainability · doi:10.1016/j.crsust.2021.100043 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
NPCC4: Advancing climate justice in climate adaptation strategies for New York City
Foster, S. R., Baptista, A., Nguyen, K. H., Tchen, J., Tedesco, M., & Leichenko, R. (2024) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.15148 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“141,142,148 Other evidence comes from research on hazardous and industrial land use, 163,164,168 housing and investment decisions, 160,192 aspects of geography—such as elevation and waterfronts 225,228,231 —and transportation planning and infrastructure.”
Influential
- Authors
- Hoffman, J. S., Shandas, V., & Pendleton, N.
- Affiliations
- Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
- Portland State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hoffman, Jeremy S.
- Venue
- Climate
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2020-01-13
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 12
- ISSN
- 2225-1154 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2999943130
- Cited by
- 842
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 136 · 2025: 127 · 2024: 151 · 2023: 180 · 2022: 122 · 2021: 102 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 1
- FWCI
- 142.80
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- dx.doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Climate (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PDXScholar (Portland State University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Environmental Justice and Health Disparities
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Urban Heat Island Mitigation
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Urban, Neighborhood, and Segregation Studies
- Keywords
- redlining, land surface temperature, urban heat island, racial segregation, heat exposure, impervious cover, tree canopy, urban climate vulnerability
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
