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Investigating the Psychological Impact of COVID-19 among Healthcare Workers: A Meta-Analysis
Open accessAbstract
Previous meta-analyses were conducted during the initial phases of the COVID-19 pandemic, which utilized a smaller pool of data. The current meta-analysis aims to provide additional (and updated) evidence related to the psychological impact among healthcare workers. The search strategy was developed by a medical librarian and bibliographical databases, including Medline, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Scopus were searched for studies examining the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the psychological health of healthcare workers. Articles were screened by three reviewers. Heterogeneity among studies was assessed by I2 statistic. The random-effects model was utilized to obtain the pooled prevalence. A subgroup analysis by region, gender, quality of study, assessment methods, healthcare profession, and exposure was performed. Publication bias was assessed by Funnel plot and Egger linear regression test. Sixty-five studies met the inclusion criteria and the total sample constituted 79,437 participants. The pooled prevalence of anxiety, depression, stress, post-traumatic stress syndrome, insomnia, psychological distress, and burnout was 34.4%, 31.8%, 40.3%, 11.4%, 27.8%, 46.1%, and 37.4% respectively. The subgroup analysis indicated higher anxiety and depression prevalence among females, nurses, and frontline responders than males, doctors, and second-line healthcare workers. This study highlights the need for designing a targeted intervention to improve resilience and foster post-traumatic growth among frontline responders.
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“A systematic review showed that the pooled prevalence rate of psychological distress among nurses during the COVID-19 outbreak was 46.1% (7).”
From Translation, adaptation, and initial evaluation of a guided self-help intervention to reduce psychological distress among nurses during COVID-19 in China (2023) · cites this paper as [7]
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InfluentialFaria, S., Fonseca, S. M., Marques, A. J., & Queirós, C. M. L. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13121434 · Cited by 8
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“The prevalence of psychological disorders such anxiety and depression among colleges students on U.S. campuses has been steadily increasing in the last decade (Oswalt et al., 2020) and Covid-19 exacerbated this issue (Batra et al., 2020).”
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“Compared to burnout rates of 37.4% for healthcare providers during the COVID-19 pandemic (Batra et al., 2020), and 30% for nurses in the last 10 years (Ge et al., 2023), this indicates a high burnout rate in the ED.”
Influentiald’Ussel, M., Adam, F., Fels, A., Châtellier, G., & Philippart, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.913126 · Cited by 2
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“The COVID-19 pandemic posed an overwhelming number of challenges for healthcare professionals and hospitals (Batra et al., 2020; Fournier et al., 2022).”
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“…zeigt, dass Fachkräfte im Gesundheitswe- sen enormen psychosozialen Belastungen sowohlwährend als auchnachdenCOVID19-Pandemie-Wellen ausgesetzt waren (u. a. Batra et al. 2020; Bohlken et al. 2020; Mulfinger et al. 2020; Osório et al. 2022; Pappa et al. 2020; VanWert et al. 2022; Wu et al. 2021).”
Chaudhari, A., Solanki, N., Sharma, P., & Patel, P. (2022) · Indian Journal of Community Health · doi:10.47203/ijch.2022.v34i04.020 · Cited by 1
“(14) and Batra K et al.(10) observed that nurses were more likely experience symptoms of stress from emotional weariness and fatigue than physicians and other HCWs.”
BackgroundInfluentialEsmaeili, S. V., Habibi, E., Dehghan, H., & Paridokht, F. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Health Engineering · doi:10.4103/ijehe.ijehe_37_21 · Cited by 1
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“[7] Only a few studies have discussed the emotional responses and coping strategies of HCWs during the COVID‑19 pandemic, which needs to be addressed as the pandemic is still raging in full force and HCWs are going to continue working in these challenging situations.”
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“Even more so when analyzing the impact of burnout after SARS or MERS (Batra K study) in the long run, they noticed that 1 to 3 years later, HCWs experienced ongoing high levels of depression symptoms [41].”
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“…outcomes, several studies have detailed how people have found silver linings during the pandemic, including posttraumatic growth or benefit finding (Batra et al., 2020; Prieto-Urs (cid:1) ua & J (cid:1) odar, 2020; Stallard et al., 2021; Vazquez et al., 2021), increased creativity (Reiter-Palmon…”
Satisfacción laboral y COVID-19: el caso del sector de los cruceros
Gutiérrez-Aragón, Ó., Rius, J. M. E. I., Gassiot-Melian, A., Pérez-Muñoz, A., & Ribas-Boadella, A. (2024) · Revista de estudios empresariales · doi:10.17561/ree.n1.2024.8132 · Cited by 1
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“Wheninitiating this study, we recognized that healthcare personnel had been substantially impacted by the pandemic, including burnout and mental health effects, 6,7 experiencing COVID-19-related bullying and harassment, 8 and changes to work hours, duties, and job security.”
BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic and the occupational overload of health professionals: Indicators of burnout
Silveira, I. L. M., Osório, F. D. L., & Loureiro, S. R. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-95650-5.00022-7 · Cited by 1
One Year After Mild COVID-19: Emotional Distress but Preserved Cognition in Healthcare Workers
Peláez, I., Martínez‐Íñigo, D., Fernandes-Magalhaes, R., Lahoz, M. E. D., del Pino, A. B., Pérez-Aranda, S., García-Romero, A., Soldic, D., & Mercado, F. (2025) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm14176007 · Cited by 1
Thảo, N. T., Xuân, L. T. T., Hoàng, N. H., Linh, T. T. T., Vinh, N. T., Quân, P. T., Nhung, T. T. K., & Quỳnh, N. T. (2021) · Tạp chí Nghiên cứu Y học · doi:10.52852/tcncyh.v144i8.459 · Cited by 1
Mosolova, E., Chung, S., Sosin, D. N., & Mosolov, S. N. (2022) · Neurology neuropsychiatry Psychosomatics · doi:10.14412/2074-2711-2022-1-45-51 · Cited by 1
de Andrade, M. A. R., Lima, B. J. S., de Jesus, A. A., Teixeira, L. D. A. C., de Souza, C. R. S., Fontes, R. B., Mendonça, N. P. V., Gonçalves, H. S., Cesar, A. S., & Aragão, M. T. (2022) · Research Society and Development · doi:10.33448/rsd-v11i7.29602 · Cited by 1
COVID-19 Pandemic Effects on the Well-Being of Professional Pilots
Stratton, E., Haddon, R., Murad, M. H., Petterson, T. M., Nelson, M., & Cowl, C. T. (2022) · Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance · doi:10.3357/amhp.6070.2022 · Cited by 1
Yi, H., Wei, S., Song, J., Xiao, M., Huang, H., Luo, D., & Zhao, Q. (2023) · Nursing Open · doi:10.1002/nop2.1991 · Cited by 1
Rajabpoor, A. K., Gheiasi, S. F., Amini, K., & Siahkali, S. R. (2023) · Journal of Multidisciplinary Care · doi:10.34172/jmdc.1137 · Cited by 1
“Previous studies have shown severe psychological reactions in HCWs during the SARS virus outbreak in 2003 (3,4).”
ResultWahyuningrum, A. D., & Pandin, M. G. R. (2021) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202104.0139.v1
“The negative psychological impact of nurses can be anticipated with the tough resilience in the nurse (20).”
BackgroundPickett, A. D. (2023) · Health Security · doi:10.1089/hs.2023.0034 · Cited by 1
Krückl, J. S., Helfenstein, F., Imfeld, L., Moeller, J., Lieb, R., Lang, U. E., Dinsenbacher, L. L., & Huber, C. G. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5253287 · Cited by 1
Benzakour, L., Langlois, G., Marini, V., Groz, A., Chiabotto, C., Apetrei, D., Corneau, B., & Bondolfi, G. (2021) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-856222/v1
Reappraising Burnout Syndrome in Healthcare under Sars-Cov-2 Pandemic
Luis Madeira, L. D. A., Narciso, M. H., & Heitor, M. J. (2021) · Journal of Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.16966/2474-7769.143
“Pandemics have an impact on the physical and mental health of the entire population [90] however, health professionals carry a disproportionate psychosocial burden.”
BackgroundImpact of COVID-19 on the Work, Health, and Quality of Life of Brazilian Hand Surgeons
Cagnolati, A. F., de Andrade, F. R., Mandarano-Filho, L. G., Mazzer, N., Barbieri, C. H., & Chen, N. C. (2022) · Hand · doi:10.1177/15589447221081871
“8% had a normal body mass index (18-25), and 70% regularly practiced physical activities.”
BackgroundCognitive Skills of Employees from the Pharmaceutical Field
Sălceanu, C., & Caraion, R.-S. (2022) · Technium Social Sciences Journal · doi:10.47577/tssj.v30i1.6248
Bhadouria, N., & Karesh, P. (2022) · International Journal of Health Sciences · doi:10.53730/ijhs.v6ns2.7064
“The COVID-19 outbreak has been associated with mental problems and challenges for many people, including healthcare professionals treating COVID-19 patients in the front line [1,2,3].”
BackgroundPsychological Impact Among Physical Therapists during COVID-19 in Western KSA
Gihan, M., Mohamed, S., Rana, B., Samarah, Y., Waad, A. M., Alanoud, A. S., Bashyir, A. S., Shatha, Y., Ghada, H., Batool, K., et al. (2022) · Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences · doi:10.53350/pjmhs22164780
Recurrent SARS-CoV-2 Serology Testing and Pandemic Anxiety: A Study of Pediatric Healthcare Workers
Li, N., Martin, S. R., Heyming, T. W., Knudsen-Robbins, C., Sanger, T. D., & Kain, Z. N. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19159562
“found a higher prevalence of anxiety in both females compared to men and nurses compared to physicians [7].”
ResultLa Covid-19 et ses impacts psychologiques
Vancappel, A., Jansen, E., & El‐Hage, W. (2022) · Annales des Mines - Responsabilité et environnement · doi:10.3917/re1.108.0075
Koca, A., Erdurmuş, Ö. Y., Gündüz, A., Oğuz, A. B., Genç, S., Polat, O., & Günalp, M. (2022) · Journal of Ankara University Faculty of Medicine · doi:10.4274/atfm.galenos.2022.48403
Baniya, G. C., Kumar, S., Verma, K., & Masuria, B. L. (2022) · Panacea Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.18231/j.pjms.2022.090
Alarcón-Moreno, Y. C., Rodríguez-Pugliesse, A. C., & Sánchez-Neira, Y. (2022) · Revista Investigación en Salud Universidad de Boyacá · doi:10.24267/23897325.730
“8 tres estudios con una muestra total de 2487 profesionales de la salud (18).”
BackgroundThe effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the mental status of health workers at sports clubs
Denerel, N., & Öçal, O. Y. (2023) · Turkish Journal of Sports Medicine · doi:10.47447/tjsm.0736 · Cited by 1
Manfredi, V., Sterpone, R., Cassinari, A., Betti, M., Franscini, M., Bertolotti, M., Giribone, S., Pepoli, A., Valorio, P., Pelazza, C., et al. (2023) · Working Paper of Public Health · doi:10.4081/wpph.2023.9610 · Cited by 1
Mohd Zulkifli Abdullah*, S. N. M. (2023) · Central European Management Journal · doi:10.57030/3364890.cemj.31.1.62
Burnout Among Health Workers and Recommendations After the Covid-19 Pandemic
Jasman, J., & Indriati, F. (2023) · Khazanah Sosial · doi:10.15575/ks.v5i1.23157
Aničić, R., Rakić, A., Sretenović, D., Kocić, J., Stulic, J., Ristić, A., Dimitrijević, D., & Nejković, L. (2023) · Medicinska istrazivanja · doi:10.5937/medi55-41203 · Cited by 1
Impact of COVID-19 among otorhinolaryngologists in Malaysia: a cross-sectional online survey
Saniasiaya, J., Sekaran, J. V. R., & Prepageran, N. (2023) · Pediatria i Medycyna Rodzinna · doi:10.15557/pimr.2023.0005
Thư, N. T. K., Tuyết, V. T., Trí, N. H., & Hiền, N. T. T. (2023) · TNU Journal of Science and Technology · doi:10.34238/tnu-jst.7503
Metadata
- Authors
- Batra, K., Singh, T. P., Sharma, M., Batra, R., & Schvaneveldt, N.
- Affiliations
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas (US)
- University of Utah (US)
- Department of Information Technology and Testing Center of Excellence, Coforge, Atlanta, GA 30338, USA
- Corresponding author
- Batra, Kavita
- Venue
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2020-12-05
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 23
- Pages
- 9096
- ISSN
- 1660-4601 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7730003
- OpenAlex
- W3111432422
- Cited by
- 342
- References
- 107
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 86 · 2022: 108 · 2021: 73
- FWCI
- 5.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Digital Scholarship - UNLV (University of Nevada Reno) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Healthcare professionals’ stress and burnout
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Occupational Health and Burnout
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, healthcare workers, psychological impact, anxiety, depression, stress, post-traumatic stress disorder, insomnia, psychological distress, burnout, nurses, gender differences, prevalence
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Anxiety, Depression, Female, Health Personnel, Humans, Male, Stress, Psychological, Pandemics
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