Towards Electrochemical Water Desalination Techniques: A Review on Capacitive Deionization, Membrane Capacitive Deionization and Flow Capacitive Deionization
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Electrochemical water desalination has been a major research area since the 1960s with the development of capacitive deionization technique. For the latter, its modus operandi lies in temporary salt ion adsorption when a simple potential difference (1.0–1.4 V) of about 1.2 V is supplied to the system to temporarily create an electric field that drives the ions to their different polarized poles and subsequently desorb these solvated ions when potential is switched off. Capacitive deionization targets/extracts the solutes instead of the solvent and thus consumes less energy and is highly effective for brackish water. This paper reviews Capacitive Deionization (mechanism of operation, sustainability, optimization processes, and shortcomings) with extension to its counterparts (Membrane Capacitive Deionization and Flow Capacitive Deionization).
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MCDI significantly enhances the efficiency of CDI by improving operating conditions such as charge efficiency and ion adsorption.
“MCDI significantly enhances the efficiency of CDI by improving operating conditions such as charge efficiency and ion adsorption”
From Electrochemical Direct Lithium Extraction: A Review of Electrodialysis and Capacitive Deionization Technologies (2025) · cites this paper as [96]
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“Capacitive Deionization (CDI) is a water desalination technology that has been engineered for highly efficient functionality when desalting brackish water [2].”
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Wang, H., Jiang, W., Nie, P., Hu, B., Hu, Y., Huang, M., & Liu, J. (2022) · Electrochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2022.141029 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
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“MCDI significantly enhances the efficiency of CDI by improving operating conditions such as charge efficiency and ion adsorption [96].”
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Controllable synthesis of nickel–cobalt-doped Prussian blue analogs for capacitive desalination
Liu, R., Wang, Y., Wu, Y., Xiao, Y., & Cai, W. (2023) · Electrochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2023.141815 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Review on the polymer materials for capacitive deionization
Kang, D., Huang, C., Ding, M., & Yang, H. Y. (2024) · Desalination · doi:10.1016/j.desal.2024.117884 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Activated Carbon Blended with Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanoflakes for Capacitive Deionization
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“Thus, in order to overcome its challenges, AC surface chemistry is usually modified by various methods, such as oxidation with oxidizing agents [11], or combined with additives to prepare hybrid electrode materials of high performance [5].”
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Self-citationAutomation of membrane capacitive deionization process using reinforcement learning
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Cu@Cu2O/carbon for efficient desalination in capacitive deionization
Yu, F., Yin, H., Bai, X., Pan, J., Zhang, X., & Ma, J. (2023) · Chinese Chemical Letters · doi:10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108362 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
A review of the development in shale oil and gas wastewater desalination
Zhou, S., Huang, L., Wang, G., Wang, W., Zhao, R., Sun, X., & Wang, D. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162376 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Exploring flow-electrode capacitive deionization: An overview and new insights
Tauk, M., Sistat, P., Habchi, R., Cretin, M., Zaviska, F., & Bechelany, M. (2024) · Desalination · doi:10.1016/j.desal.2024.118392 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
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Jiang, J., Dorji, P., Badeti, U., Sohn, W., Freguia, S., Phuntsho, S., Saliby, I. J. E., & Shon, H. K. (2023) · Desalination · doi:10.1016/j.desal.2023.116924 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
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High speed capacitive deionization system with flow-through electrodes
Guo, L., Ding, M., Yan, D., Pam, M. E., Vafakhah, S., Gu, C., Zhang, W., y Alvarado, P. V., Shi, Y., & Yang, H. Y. (2020) · Desalination · doi:10.1016/j.desal.2020.114750 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Selectivity adsorption of sulfate by amino-modified activated carbon during capacitive deionization
Chen, X., Deng, W., Miao, L., Gao, M. H., Ao, T., Chen, W., Ueyama, T., & Dai, Q. (2021) · Environmental Technology · doi:10.1080/09593330.2021.2005689 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
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Khan, S., Rahman, S. U., Shah, A., Akhtar, N., Hussain, Z., Ahmad, N., Kamika, I. A., Azizi, S., & Mâaza, M. (2026) · Desalination · doi:10.1016/j.desal.2026.119860 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
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“Therefore, MCDI shows great potential for meeting flexible desalination demands in terms of salt rejection and water recovery [26].”
Miniaturized Salinity Gradient Energy Harvesting Devices
Hsu, W.-S., Preet, A., Lin, T., & Lin, T.-E. L. (2021) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules26185469 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
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Advances in efficient desalination technology of capacitive deionization for water recycling
Tong, Y., Zhou, S., Zhou, J., Zhang, G., Li, X., Zhao, C., & Liu, P. (2021) · Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination · doi:10.2166/wrd.2021.101 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
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The electrode materials in flow‐electrode capacitive deionization desalination: a mini review
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“In past years, only a few review papers on the MCDI process (Hassanvand et al. 2017; Folaranmi et al. 2020; Kim et al. 2020b; Ali et al. 2021; Pawlowski 2020; Yang et al. 2020) are available (schematically shown in Fig.”
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Tunnel-Structured ζ-V2O5 as a Redox-Active Insertion Host for Hybrid Capacitive Deionization
Cool, N. I., James, R. K., Schofield, P., Handy, J. V., Bhatia, M. R., & Banerjee, S. (2022) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.2c17800 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
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Lv, Y., Zhang, L., & Wang, Y. (2024) · Desalination and Water Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100318 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Reactive transport in membrane separation modeling: A perspective
Nir, O., Oren, Y., Atsbha, M. W., Chandra, A., Geller, Y., Chaudhary, M., Monat, L., Singh, P., & Zevenhoven, R. (2022) · Process Safety and Environmental Protection · doi:10.1016/j.cherd.2022.09.054 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
MnO2-modified soybean root derived porous carbon with excellent capacity deionization
Yin, Q., Xiao, Y., Sha, P., Pang, X., Miao, W., Du, X., Zhang, Q. J., Sui, J., Yu, J., Dong, H., et al. (2023) · Diamond and Related Materials · doi:10.1016/j.diamond.2023.110036 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Highly Efficient Capacitive Deionization Enabled by NiCo4MnO8.5 Electrodes
Wang, W., Liu, Z., Zhang, Z., & Li, H. (2021) · Global Challenges · doi:10.1002/gch2.202100095 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Karimirahnama, A., Mozaffarian, M., Dabir, B., & Esmaeilian, N. (2024) · Desalination · doi:10.1016/j.desal.2024.118254 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Folaranmi, G., Tauk, M., Bechelany, M., Sistat, P., Cretin, M., & Zaviska, F. (2021) · Materials · doi:10.3390/ma14226891 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Most desalination technologies, such as multiple effect desalination (MED), reverse osmosis (RO), and others, have high capital costs (when considering plant setup) and energy consumption (when considering pre- and post-treatment of water, as in RO), necessitating the development of a new desalination technique [1].”
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Zhang, H., Wu, J., Hu, Z., Wang, H., Gao, S., Gao, M., Yang, Z., Zhang, J., Tong, Y., Zhu, Y., et al. (2026) · Biomass and Bioenergy · doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2026.109706 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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“However, high resistance, high energy consumption, and limited surface area for ion adsorption restrict the application of MCDI architecture in the field of capacitive deionization [40].”
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A Novel Dual-Ion Capacitive Deionization System Design with Ultrahigh Desalination Performance
Jiang, Y., Hou, Z., Yan, L., Gang, H., Wang, H., & Chai, L. (2022) · Polymers · doi:10.3390/polym14214776 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“On the other hand, capacitive-deionization (CDI), as an emerging energy-efficient desalination technology that employs electrode materials to adsorb salt from saline water, could operate under mild conditions [10,11].”
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Balaji-Wright, A., Wu, J., Shocron, A. N., Dana, A. G., Suss, M. E., & Mani, A. (2024) · Desalination · doi:10.1016/j.desal.2024.117924 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Subrahmanya, T. M., Gua, L.-Y., Austria, H. F. M., Huang, T., Abebe, S. H., Hung, W., Wang, C., Hu, C., Lee, K., & Lai, J. (2024) · Desalination · doi:10.1016/j.desal.2024.118513 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Shajid, S. R., Mourshed, M., Rimon, S. T. A., & Kibria, M. G. (2025) · Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jiec.2025.08.003 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Review of the current state of technology for capacitive deionization of aqueous salt solutions
Zakharov, A., Tukesheva, A. V., Haque, S. F. B., Ferraris, J. P., Zakhidov, A. A., Tazhibayeva, T., Bazarbayeva, T. A., & Pavlenko, V. V. (2023) · Bulletin of the Karaganda University Physics Series · doi:10.31489/2023ph3/16-33 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Enhanced Fluoride Removal in Wastewater Using Modified Activated Carbon in FCDI Systems
Xiong, Y., Sun, J., Jiao, Y., Tan, T., Zhang, Y., Diao, H., & Xia, S. (2024) · Water Air & Soil Pollution · doi:10.1007/s11270-024-07352-6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“FCDI not only offers a cost-effective approach with lower energy consumption but also minimizes chemical waste compared to conventional methods (Folaranmi et al., 2020).”
Jiang, H., Yuan, J., Lin, L., Wang, H., Gao, R., Chen, Y., Mu, C., Luo, F., Luo, T., & Wang, X. (2025) · Separation and Purification Technology · doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2025.134055 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Switchable NaCl cages via a MWCNTs/Ni[Fe(CN) 6 ] 2 nanocomposite for high performance desalination
Yang, Z.-Q., Zhang, W., Kang, Y., Chen, B., Yin, Y., Li, J., Yang, J.-L., Gao, Y., & Ma, X. (2023) · Nanoscale · doi:10.1039/d3nr04410f · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Mishra, S. K., Sengupta, S., & Das, S. K. (2025) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-025-36069-0 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…technique targets solute from solution by charging the electrodes presented with a higher specific area of surface at a constant voltage or current value rather than solvent (water molecule) from the solution, making them much more suitable without higher energy consumption (Folaranmi et al. 2020).”
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Activated Carbon-Embedded Reduced Graphene Oxide Electrodes for Capacitive Desalination
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Seawater and Brackish Water Desalination
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Microfluidic Electrochemical Desalination Systems: A Review
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The electrosorption behavior of shuttle-like FeP: performance and mechanism
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Electrodialysis and membrane capacitive deionization
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“ASAR and CE were reported to be 15.6 mg/g and 95% in a study by Folaranmi et al. (Folaranmi et al. 2020).”
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- Authors
- Folaranmi, G., Bechelany, M., Sistat, P., Cretin, M., & Zaviska, F.
- Affiliations
- École Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Montpellier (FR)
- Institut Européen des Membranes, IEM, UMR-5635, University Montpellier, ENSCM, CNRS, Place Eugène Bataillon, CEDEX 05, 34095 Montpellier, France
- Venue
- Membranes
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2020-05-12
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 96
- ISSN
- 2077-0375 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7281590
- OpenAlex
- W3025469769
- Cited by
- 149
- References
- 115
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 4
- FWCI
- 1.38
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- dx.doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Membranes (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- Australian Government
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Membrane-based Ion Separation Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Membrane Separation Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Nanopore and Nanochannel Transport Studies
- Keywords
- capacitive deionization, membrane capacitive deionization, brackish water treatment, energy consumption
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