Dietary intake of high-protein foods and other major foods in meat-eaters, poultry-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians, and vegans in UK Biobank
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Vegetarian diets are defined by the absence of meat and fish, but differences in the intake of other foods between meat-eaters and low or non-meat eaters are also important to document. We examined intakes of high-protein foods (meat, poultry, fish, legumes, nuts, vegetarian protein alternatives, dairy products, and eggs) and other major food groups (fruit, vegetables, bread, pasta, rice, snack foods, and beverages) in regular meat-eaters, low meat-eaters, poultry-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians, and vegans of white ethnicity participating in UK Biobank who had completed at least one web-based 24-h dietary assessment (n = 199,944). In regular meat-eaters, around 25% of total energy came from meat, fish, dairy and plant milk, cheese, yogurt, and eggs. In vegetarians, around 20% of energy came from dairy and plant milk, cheese, yoghurt, eggs, legumes, nuts, and vegetarian protein alternatives, and in vegans around 15% came from plant milk, legumes, vegetarian alternatives, and nuts. Low and non-meat eaters had higher intakes of fruit and vegetables and lower intakes of roast or fried potatoes compared to regular meat-eaters. The differences in the intakes of meat, plant-based high-protein foods, and other foods between meat-eaters and low and non-meat eaters in UK Biobank may contribute to differences in health outcomes.
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A vegan diet is higher in fruits and vegetables, which typically contain less energy for a given mass of food.
“Furthermore, a vegan diet is high(er) in fruits and vegetables [33,44], which typically contain less energy for a given mass of food (ie, lower energy density foods).”
From Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [44]
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Intake and adequacy of the vegan diet. A systematic review of the evidence
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“A possible explanation for an adverse effect could be a lower intake of protein, vitamin D, B12, and calcium, which are potentially limited in vegan dietary patterns (Bradbury, Tong, and Key 2017; Tong et al. 2021; Bakaloudi et al. 2021).”
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Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete
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- Authors
- Bradbury, K., Tong, T., & Key, T.
- Affiliations
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Bradbury, Kathryn
- Venue
- Nutrients
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2017-12-02
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1317
- ISSN
- 2072-6643 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5748767
- OpenAlex
- W2774639344
- Cited by
- 115
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 5
- FWCI
- 8.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Nutrients (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Medical Research Council (MR/MR012190/1)
- Wellcome Trust (Project: LEAP)
- Girdlers' New Zealand Health Research Council Fellowship
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Agriculture Sustainability and Environmental Impact
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- dietary intake, protein-rich foods, meat-eaters, vegetarians, vegans, poultry, fish, Fabaceae, nuts, dairy products, eggs, fruit and vegetable intake, energy intake, 24-hour dietary assessment, UK Biobank
- MeSH terms
- Vegetarians, Vegans, Adult, Aged, Animals, Diet, Diet Surveys, Dietary Proteins, Female, Food, United Kingdom, Humans, Male, Meat, Middle Aged, Prospective Studies, Cohort Studies
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