Intake and adequacy of the vegan diet. A systematic review of the evidence
Open accessAbstract
Background: Vegan diets, where animal-and all their by-products are excluded from the diet, have gained popularity, especially in the last decade.However, the evaluation of this type of diet has not been well addressed in the scientific literature.This study aimed to investigate the adequacy of vegan diets in European populations and of their macro-and micronutrient intakes compared to World Health Organization recommendations.Methods: A systematic search in PubMed, Web of Science, IBSS, Cochrane library and Google Scholar was conducted and 48 studies (12 cohorts and 36 cross-sectional) were included.Results: Regarding macronutrients, vegan diets are lower in protein intake compared with all other diet types.Veganism is also associated with low intake of vitamins B 2 , Niacin (B 3 ), B 12 , D, iodine, zinc, calcium, potassium, selenium.Vitamin B 12 intake among vegans is significantly lower (0.24e0.49mg, recommendations are 2.4 mg) and calcium intake in the majority of vegans was below recommendations (750 mg/d).No significant differences in fat intake were observed.Vegan diets are not related to deficiencies in vitamins A, B 1 , В 6 , C, E, iron, phosphorus, magnesium, copper and folate and have a low glycemic load.Conclusions: Following a vegan diet may result in deficiencies in micronutrients (vitamin B 12 , zinc, calcium and selenium) which should not be disregarded.However, low micro-and macronutrient intakes are not always associated with health impairments.Individuals who consume a vegan diet should be aware of the risk of potential dietary deficiencies.
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A vegan dietary pattern can sometimes limit specific nutrients, such as vitamin B12, iron, and calcium.
“However, sometimes a vegan dietary pattern can limit specific nutrients, such as vitamin B12, iron, and calcium.15,16”
From Cardiometabolic Effects of Omnivorous vs Vegan Diets in Identical Twins: A Randomized Clinical Trial (2023) · cites this paper as [16]
In the general population, individuals following a vegan diet consume fewer calories compared with individuals following omnivorous/vegetarian diets.
“However, a recent systematic review concluded that in the general population, individuals following a vegan diet consume fewer calories compared with individuals following omnivorous/vegetarian diets [48].”
From Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [48]
Vegans consume greater amounts of PUFAs compared with omnivores.
“Vegans consume greater amounts of PUFAs compared with omnivores [48].”
From Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [48]
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- Authors
- Bakaloudi, D. R., Halloran, A., Rippin, H. L., Oikonomidou, A. C., Dardavesis, T. I., Williams, J., Wickramasinghe, K., Breda, J., & Chourdakis, M.
- Affiliations
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (GR)
- University of Copenhagen (DK)
- World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe (DK)
- Corresponding author
- Bakaloudi, Dimitra Rafailia
- Halloran, Afton
- Rippin, Holly L.
- Oikonomidou, Artemis Christina
- Dardavesis, Theodoros I.
- Williams, Julianne
- Wickramasinghe, Kremlin
- Chourdakis, Michail
- ORCID
- Venue
- Clinical Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-05
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 3503-3521
- ISSN
- 0261-5614 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3112845174
- Cited by
- 466
- References
- 129
- Citations by year
- 2026: 72 · 2025: 110 · 2024: 101 · 2023: 96 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 19
- FWCI
- 7.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Clinical Nutrition (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research at the University of Copenhagen (University of Copenhagen) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Funders
- World Health Organization
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Agriculture Sustainability and Environmental Impact
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutrition and Health Studies
- Keywords
- vegan diet, nutritional adequacy, micronutrient intake, macronutrient intake, vitamin B12 deficiency, calcium intake, zinc, selenium, dietary fat, glycemic load, dietary deficiency, European populations
- MeSH terms
- Diet, Vegan, Nutrients, Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Europe, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Nutritive Value, Vitamins, Young Adult
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