End-of-Use vs. End-of-Life: When Do Consumer Electronics Become Waste?
Open accessAbstract
This study focuses on the lifespan of consumer electronics. The article reviews end-of-life terminology in scientific literature and suggests distinguishing end-of-use and end-of-life stages. The question, when electronics become waste, is approached using the concept of a system called PSSP language, which classifies artefacts based on their attributes of purpose, structure, state and performance. It is highlighted that waste as a concept is dynamic; the same thing can be waste or non-waste at different times and places and for different people. Further, the article reviews the impact of storage behavior on the realization of the waste hierarchy, using mobile phones as a case study. Evidence suggests that over half of customers use their mobile phones for only two years, and there is little incentive to keep them in use longer. Surveys also indicate that over half of the customers do not return their phones for reuse or recycling but keep them at home. The article suggests that the three key factors, promoting the storing of an old phone, are the shortness of usage time, perceived residual value of replaced equipment and concerns of personal information security. It is also indicated that memories and the personal attachment to the device contribute to consumers’ storage decision. It is concluded that, to prolong the use of mobile phones, there is a demand for changing consumers attitudes towards the return of electronics for reuse and repair to be more positive.
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If circular business models supported by extensive repair ecosystems are perceived as economically burdensome or offering insufficient financial advantage over shorter-lived linear alternatives, their uptake will remain limited despite environmental or strategic circular economy alignment.
“Should CBMs supported by extensive repair ecosystems be perceived as economically burdensome or offering insufficient financial advantage over shorter-lived linear alternatives, their uptake will remain limited despite environmental or strategic CE alignment (Ylä-Mella et al. 2022;van der Velden et al. 2023).”
From Integrating Life Cycle Assessment, Monetised Externalities and Value Alignment for Strategic Reconfiguration of Circular Business Models: The Case of Smartphones (2026) · cites this paper as Ylä-Mella et al. 2022
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe product-as-a-service model's approach to value creation and delivery is operationally demanding, requiring substantial upfront investment in a sophisticated reverse logistics network for professional repair and device management.
“The model's approach to value creation and delivery is also operationally demanding, requiring substantial upfront investment in a sophisticated reverse logistics network for professional repair and device management (Ylä-Mella et al. 2022;Brändström et al. 2024).”
From Integrating Life Cycle Assessment, Monetised Externalities and Value Alignment for Strategic Reconfiguration of Circular Business Models: The Case of Smartphones (2026) · cites this paper as Ylä-Mella et al. 2022
The Knowledge Gaps and Recommendations for Future Research section (page unavailable) says services for upgrading used phones are scarce and that expanding them poses technical and organizational challenges. It does not discuss a product-as-a-service model or say that substantial upfront investment in a reverse-logistics network is required for professional repair and device management. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredReverse logistics systems, by providing convenient and incentivised take-back options, encourage widespread consumer participation, facilitate multistakeholder collaboration, and enable the return of value to the original equipment manufacturer, thereby catalysing a resilient service ecosystem.
“Such systems, by providing convenient and incentivised take-back options, not only encourage widespread consumer participation (Cordova-Pizarro et al. 2020;Ylä-Mella et al. 2022) but also facilitate multistakeholder collaboration and enable the return of value to the OEM, thereby catalysing a resilient service ecosystem.”
From Integrating Life Cycle Assessment, Monetised Externalities and Value Alignment for Strategic Reconfiguration of Circular Business Models: The Case of Smartphones (2026) · cites this paper as Ylä-Mella et al. 2022
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Rittershaus, P., Aryan, V., & Renner, M. (2025) · WIREs Energy and Environment · doi:10.1002/wene.70006 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rittershaus, P., Aryan, V., Sánchez, D., Renner, M., & Poeppelbuss, J. (2026) · Business Strategy and the Environment · doi:10.1002/bse.70271 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Ylä-Mella, J., Keiski, R. L., & Pongrácz, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Oulu (FI)
- Water, Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Oulu, P.O. Box 4300, FI-90014 Oulu, Finland
- Corresponding author
- Ylä-Mella, Jenni
- Venue
- Resources
- Publisher
- MDPI AG
- Published
- 2022-02-08
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 18
- ISSN
- 2079-9276 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4211134174
- Cited by
- 41
- References
- 8
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 7
- FWCI
- 4.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Resources (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Funders
- The University of Oulu & Academy of Finland Profi6 (336449)
- Eemil Aaltonen Foundation (10-31199-22)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Recycling and Waste Management Techniques
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Sustainable Supply Chain Management
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Waste Management and Recycling
- Keywords
- consumer electronics, end of life, electronic waste, waste hierarchy, mobile devices, recycling and reuse, personal data security, consumer attachment, product lifetime
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