Integrating Life Cycle Assessment, Monetised Externalities and Value Alignment for Strategic Reconfiguration of Circular Business Models: The Case of Smartphones

Nine impact categories emerge as more critical for the environmental profile of smartphones.

“Although the study covers a comprehensive set of 16 environmental impact indicators, nine impact categories emerge as more critical owing to their relevance to the environmental profile of smartphones (Clément et al. 2020;Sánchez et al. 2024).”

• cites Clément et al. 2020 sourceDisputed

  The Introduction (p. 3) explicitly limits this study to global warming potential over 100 years (GWP100). Its analysis does not assess 16 indicators or identify nine critical impact categories for smartphones. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Sánchez et al. 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

LCA's integration into business model innovation is limited, especially in the fast-paced smartphone sector.

“Despite LCA's robustness in revealing environmental hotspots, its integration into business model innovation (BMI) is limited, especially in the fast-paced smartphone sector where innovation cycles and profit motives impede the adoption and implementation of circular strategies (Rittershaus et al. 2025).”

• cites Rittershaus et al. 2025 sourcePartly supported

  The section “Strategic Adaptations in Value Creation” identifies shorter innovation cycles and uncertainty about profitability as barriers to circular practices in the mobile-phone industry. However, neither that section nor the passages retrieved for “LCA” and “life cycle assessment” say that LCA’s integration into business model innovation is limited or discuss its ability to reveal environmental hotspots. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Conventional LCA is not well suited to assess business models, as it neglects economic and socio-technical factors such as monetary flows and value-chain dynamics.

“Most critically, for business strategy, conventional LCA is not well suited to assess business models, as it neglects economic and socio-technical factors, such as monetary flows and value-chain dynamics, essential to corporate strategy (Goffetti et al. 2022).”

• cites Goffetti et al. 2022 sourceSupported

Interconnected barriers spanning financial, market, operational, organisational, policy, technological and intrinsic domains pose substantial systemic inertia, impeding CE implementation.

“However, interconnected barriers spanning financial, market, operational, organisational, policy, technological and intrinsic domains pose substantial systemic inertia, impeding CE implementation (Tura et al. 2019;Vermunt et al. 2019;Rizos and Bryhn 2022).”

• cites Tura et al. 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Vermunt et al. 2019 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.2 (page not supplied) identifies financial, organisational, knowledge-and-technology, supply-chain, market and institutional barriers to implementing circular business models; institutional barriers include regulations. The Discussion and conclusions (page not supplied) finds many barriers interlinked. The paper does not identify an intrinsic barrier domain or explicitly establish the broader claim of systemic inertia across CE implementation. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Rizos and Bryhn 2022 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2 identifies multiple financial, supply-chain, technological, consumer, organisational and policy barriers, and section 6 says no single policy instrument can address them all. Section 4.6 also describes an internal focus on linear processes that cannot easily change. The paper does not identify the quoted seven-domain classification, particularly a separate “intrinsic” domain, and its findings focus on the EEE sector rather than CE implementation generally. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

In smartphones, upstream processes, particularly extraction of raw materials and energy-intensive manufacturing of components, dominate the overall product footprint.

“In the case of smartphones, numerous studies identify upstream processes, particularly the extraction of raw materials and the energyintensive manufacturing of components, to dominate the overall product footprint (Clément et al. 2020;Cordella et al. 2021).”

• cites Clément et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.1.1 (p. 9) reports that production accounts for 70 ± 12% of smartphones’ greenhouse-gas footprint. Sections 3.2.1 (p. 13) and 5 (p. 25) identify component manufacturing, particularly integrated circuits, as an important contributor with substantial electricity use. The paper does not establish that raw-material extraction itself dominates, and its findings concern greenhouse-gas impact rather than every measure of product footprint. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Cordella et al. 2021 sourceSupported

The circular economy lacks integrated, holistic assessment frameworks that can bridge environmental performance, monetised externalities and strategic viability.

“This disconnect highlights a persistent gap-although the CE concept is conceptually appealing, it lacks integrated, holistic assessment frameworks that can bridge environmental performance, monetised externalities and strategic viability (Tura et al. 2019;Vermunt et al. 2019).”

• cites Tura et al. 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Vermunt et al. 2019 sourceCould not verify

  The Introduction discusses barriers to adopting circular business models, and the Discussion and conclusions describes challenges to their economic viability. Neither section says that the circular economy lacks assessment frameworks integrating environmental performance, monetised externalities and strategic viability. Searches for those assessment terms found no passage addressing the claimed framework gap. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Prolonging the active use phase through strategies like reuse, repair and refurbishment can deliver greater environmental benefits than improving recycling rates alone by avoiding carbon- and resource-intensive manufacturing of new devices.

“Although improving recycling rates is necessary, studies demonstrate that prolonging the active use phase through strategies like reuse, repair and refurbishment can deliver greater environmental benefits by avoiding the carbon-and resource-intensive manufacturing of new devices (Pamminger et al. 2021).”

• cites Pamminger et al. 2021 sourcePartly supported

  Section 4.2 reports lower global-warming and resource-depletion impacts for repair and refurbishment than for a linear smartphone scenario; section 5.1 links reuse of components to reduced production of new parts. The paper does not compare these strategies with improving recycling rates alone: section 3 says final end-of-life processes, including material recovery, are outside its scope. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The product-as-a-service model's approach to value creation and delivery is operationally demanding, requiring substantial upfront investment in a sophisticated reverse logistics network for professional repair and device management.

“The model's approach to value creation and delivery is also operationally demanding, requiring substantial upfront investment in a sophisticated reverse logistics network for professional repair and device management (Ylä-Mella et al. 2022;Brändström et al. 2024).”

• cites Ylä-Mella et al. 2022 sourcePartly supported

  The Knowledge Gaps and Recommendations for Future Research section (page unavailable) says services for upgrading used phones are scarce and that expanding them poses technical and organizational challenges. It does not discuss a product-as-a-service model or say that substantial upfront investment in a reverse-logistics network is required for professional repair and device management. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Brändström et al. 2024 sourcePartly supported

  The E3 case description reports an IT-equipment service that plans repairs and manages product use, while §4.2.4 says a new reconditioning facility required high investment costs (page numbers unavailable). These passages support operational demands and costly repair infrastructure, but do not say that product-as-a-service models require substantial upfront investment in a sophisticated reverse-logistics network. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Tailoring a compelling value proposition is the primary hurdle for the product-as-a-service model, as it must overcome deeply ingrained consumer preferences for product ownership and concerns about long-term costs.

“Tailoring a compelling value proposition is the primary hurdle, as it must overcome deeply ingrained consumer preferences for product ownership and concerns about long-term costs (Boyer et al. 2021;Magnier and Mugge 2022).”

• cites Boyer et al. 2021 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) says firms should adjust circular offerings to customer segments and that some customers prioritize low prices. It mentions a product-service system as a possible way to recirculate products, but does not identify tailoring its value proposition as the primary hurdle or report preferences for ownership and concerns about long-term costs. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Magnier and Mugge 2022 sourceCould not verify

  Section 2.3 discusses how consumers weigh the value and costs of replacing an owned product. It does not address product-as-a-service, a preference for ownership over that model, long-term service costs, or the claim that crafting a value proposition is its primary hurdle. Searches for product-as-a-service, ownership preferences, subscriptions, and long-term costs found no passage addressing those points; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

If circular business models supported by extensive repair ecosystems are perceived as economically burdensome or offering insufficient financial advantage over shorter-lived linear alternatives, their uptake will remain limited despite environmental or strategic circular economy alignment.

“Should CBMs supported by extensive repair ecosystems be perceived as economically burdensome or offering insufficient financial advantage over shorter-lived linear alternatives, their uptake will remain limited despite environmental or strategic CE alignment (Ylä-Mella et al. 2022;van der Velden et al. 2023).”

• cites Ylä-Mella et al. 2022 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites van der Velden et al. 2023 sourcePartly supported

  The Regulating Repair section says repair can cost more than replacement, making consumers unlikely to pursue it, and identifies affordability as a barrier to repair-based business models. That supports the economic-barrier point, but the paper does not establish the broader claim about uptake of circular business models supported by extensive repair ecosystems, or assess whether strategic circular-economy alignment offsets that barrier. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The shift to a recurring revenue model introduces new complexities for value capture, necessitating different adjusted risk management strategies compared to traditional sales.

“Finally, the shift to a recurring revenue model introduces new complexities for value capture, necessitating different adjusted risk management strategies compared to traditional sales (Rizos and Bryhn 2022;Hunger et al. 2024).”

• cites Rizos and Bryhn 2022 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.1 (page unavailable) says circular business models can add complexity compared with linear models, including questions about ownership and how costs and benefits are shared. Sections 4.2 and 4.6 discuss leasing opportunities and the need for new internal processes. The copy does not establish that recurring revenue specifically creates these complexities or that it requires different risk-management strategies from traditional sales. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Hunger et al. 2024 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

A systemic approach to value creation necessitates optimising for end-of-life value recovery through design choices that enable easier disassembly and high-quality material recovery.

“Such a systemic approach also necessitates optimising for EoL value recovery through design choices that enable easier disassembly and high-quality material recovery (Pamminger et al. 2021;Gómez et al. 2023).”

• cites Pamminger et al. 2021 sourcePartly supported

  The Goal and scope section says the paper guides decisions about circular end-of-use strategies for smartphones, supporting the broad point about considering value after first use. But it explicitly excludes design changes to ease those strategies, and the Method section excludes final end-of-life material recovery. The paper therefore does not support the specific prescription for easier disassembly and high-quality material recovery. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Gómez et al. 2023 sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.1 says components fastened with screws or rivets are easier to separate than materials joined by welding, binding or coating. The Introduction links component separation to material recovery, but the paper does not explicitly argue that a systemic approach necessitates design optimisation for high-quality end-of-life recovery. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Relying solely on user-led do-it-yourself repair efforts, while valuable, has inherent limitations for achieving widespread adoption beyond niche consumer segments.

“Relying solely on user-led DIY repair efforts, while valuable, has inherent limitations for achieving widespread adoption beyond niche consumer segments (van der Velden 2021; Prabhu and Majhi 2023).”

• cites van der Velden 2021 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2, “Product repair and the circular economy,” identifies barriers for self-repairers, including difficult product designs, unavailable parts, warranty loss, and restricted repair information. It also reports that repair becomes more likely when infrastructure is available. These passages support limits to relying on DIY repair alone, but the paper does not establish that DIY repair cannot spread beyond niche consumer segments. (LLM, conf=0.83)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Prabhu and Majhi 2023 sourcePartly supported

  The review’s “In-use lifespan of mobile phones” section says repair can extend a phone’s use, but that repairability has had only a marginal impact and that costs and consumer beliefs pose barriers. It also calls for viable repair services and accessible parts. It does not specifically assess user-led DIY repair or whether its adoption is confined to niche consumer segments. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Failing to meet evolving expectations for performance, features and user experience creates significant barriers, such as a loss of consumer trust and a stigma against aging devices, ultimately hindering the widespread adoption of circular business models.

“Failing to meet evolving expectations for performance, features and user experience creates significant barriers, such as a loss of consumer trust and a stigma against aging devices, ultimately hindering the widespread adoption of CBMs (Magnier and Mugge 2022;van den Berge et al. 2023).”

• cites Magnier and Mugge 2022 sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites van den Berge et al. 2023 sourcePartly supported

  Section 4.2.4 reports that improved TV performance and new features prompted replacement, while software incompatibility prompted early smartphone replacement. Section 4.1.2 also links early replacement to interest in features adopted by peers. The paper does not establish the claimed loss of consumer trust, stigma against aging devices, or resulting barrier to widespread adoption of circular business models. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Business model innovations that shift from product sales to service-based offerings align strongly with theoretical arguments positioning them as pivotal circular economy enablers.

“By contrast, BMIs that shift from product sales to service-based offerings align strongly with theoretical arguments positioning them as pivotal CE enablers (Rizos and Bryhn 2022;Conduit et al. 2023).”

• cites Rizos and Bryhn 2022 sourceSupported
• cites Conduit et al. 2023 sourceSupported

Sustainable outcomes require business models in which the revenue logic rewards lifetime performance rather than volume-based turnover.

“Sustainable outcomes require business models in which the revenue logic rewards lifetime performance rather than volume-based turnover (Kirchherr et al. 2017;Ferasso et al. 2020).”

• cites Kirchherr et al. 2017 sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.4 describes business models as an enabler of the circular economy and quotes a definition based on longevity. Section 2.3 links circular-economy business models to sustainable development. Neither passage says that revenue should reward lifetime performance rather than volume-based turnover; that specific requirement is unsupported by this paper. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Ferasso et al. 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction says circular-economy models often move toward long-life solutions and that renting, leasing, or subscriptions might become more frequent. It does not say sustainable outcomes require revenue tied to lifetime performance rather than sales volume; the claim turns a possible shift into a requirement and adds a contrast the paper does not make. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Fostering a sense of active partnership is fundamental to enabling business models that equitably share the costs and benefits resulting from a transition towards a circular economy.

“Fostering this sense of active partnership is fundamental to enabling business models that equitably share the costs and benefits resulting from a transition towards a CE (Rizos and Bryhn 2022).”

• cites Rizos and Bryhn 2022 sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.1 (page unavailable) says successful implementation of circular business models is largely contingent on collaboration among supply-chain actors and identifies sharing costs and benefits as a challenge. Section 4.3 (page unavailable) also reports partnerships as a key enabler. Neither passage establishes that partnership produces business models that share those costs and benefits equitably. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Firm-centric value capture mechanisms are only viable if they successfully facilitate a shift in the consumer's role from a passive end-user to an active partner in value co-creation.

“However, these firm-centric value capture mechanisms are only viable if they successfully facilitate a shift in the consumer's role from a passive end-user to an active partner in value co-creation (Neramballi et al. 2024).”

• cites Neramballi et al. 2024 sourcePartly supported

  Section 3.3.1 (p. 4) says that developing circular PaaS value propositions requires a shift from unidirectional value delivery to co-creation with customers. Section 3.5.1 (p. 5) discusses value-capture elements, but does not say that firm-centric value-capture mechanisms are viable only if they bring about that shift. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

All circular business models (S1, S2, S3) outperform the linear business-as-usual baseline (S0) in monetised externalities.

“The results demonstrate that all circular business models outperform the linear baseline in terms of both environmental impacts and monetised externalities.”

All circular business models (S1, S2, S3) outperform the linear business-as-usual baseline (S0) in environmental impacts.

“The results demonstrate that all circular business models outperform the linear baseline in terms of both environmental impacts and monetised externalities.”

The strategic alignment of S1 and S2 is constrained by weakened consumer value propositions and original equipment manufacturing profitability.

“However, their strategic alignment is constrained by weakened consumer value propositions and original equipment manufacturing profitability.”

Incremental models that extend product lifespans through user-led repair (S1, S2) yield reductions in greenhouse gas emissions up to 46% compared to the linear baseline.

“Incremental models that extend product lifespans through user-led repair (S1, S2) yield significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (up to -46%) and eco-costs (-36%).”

Incremental models that extend product lifespans through user-led repair (S1, S2) yield reductions in eco-costs of 36% compared to the linear baseline.

“Incremental models that extend product lifespans through user-led repair (S1, S2) yield significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (up to -46%) and eco-costs (-36%).”

S2 reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 46% relative to S0.

“S1 reduces GHGs by 32% relative to S0, and S2 and S3 by 46% and 48%, respectively (see Figure 2).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Across all scenarios, the manufacturing and resource-extraction phases dominate life cycle impacts.

“Across all scenarios, the manufacturing and resource-extraction phases dominate the life cycle impacts.”

In S1, value proposition shows only marginal improvement.

“By contrast, value proposition shows only marginal improvement, indicating that extending lifespan through DIY repair enhances operational and structural aspects of circularity more than it strengthens the perceived attractiveness of the offering.”

The LCA quantified cradle-to-grave environmental burdens of the baseline scenario S0 and three CBM scenarios S1, S2 and S3 across sixteen EF 3.1 impact categories.

“The LCA quantified the cradle-to-grave environmental burdens of the baseline scenario (S0: Business-as-usual) and three distinct CBM scenarios (S1, S2 and S3) across sixteen EF 3.1 impact categories (Table 4) (Zampori and Pant 2019).”

• cites Zampori and Pant 2019Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

S2's more limited repair interventions deliver comparable life cycle improvements with lower refurbishment intensity.

“In contrast, S2's more limited repair interventions deliver comparable life cycle improvements with lower refurbishment intensity.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Scenario S0 incurs the highest eco-cost of €66.17.

“Scenario S0 incurs the highest eco-cost of €66.17.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Scenario S3 substantially outperforms all other scenarios in strategic value alignment, with a VAS of 17.10.

“Although its total eco-cost (€41.01) is only marginally lower than S2, it substantially outperforms all other scenarios in terms of strategic value alignment (VAS: 17.10).”

Aluminium, the primary contributor by weight (~37 wt%), has a relatively modest eco-cost (~1.9%).

“For example, aluminium, the primary contributor by weight (~37 wt%), has a relatively modest eco-cost (~1.9%).”

The risk from the missing mass fraction is partially mitigated because the entire mineral and metal depletion category accounts for only about 10% of the total eco-cost in the baseline scenario S0.

“However, this risk is partially mitigated as the entire mineral and metal depletion category accounts for only about 10% of the total eco-cost in the baseline scenario (S0).”

Scenario S2 has a VAS of 11.15, which is marginally lower than S1.

“Scenario S2 (VAS: 11.15) extends the lifespan further to 7 years, but its VAS is marginally lower than S1.”

S1 reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 32% relative to S0.

“S1 reduces GHGs by 32% relative to S0, and S2 and S3 by 46% and 48%, respectively (see Figure 2).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Total eco-cost decreases markedly with increasing circularity.

“The results indicate that the total eco-cost (ECI s ) decreases markedly with increasing circularity.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Similar, though less pronounced, observations were made for cobalt, terbium, silver and palladium-elements crucial for electronic functionalities but associated with substantial environmental prevention costs relative to their mass.

“Similar, though less pronounced, observations were made for cobalt, terbium, silver and palladium-elements crucial for electronic functionalities but associated with substantial environmental prevention costs relative to their mass.”

Across all scenarios, the largest monetary burdens stem from human toxicity, climate change, water use and mineral and metal resource depletion.

“Across all scenarios, the largest monetary burdens stem from human toxicity, climate change, water use and mineral and metal resource depletion.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

S3 reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 48% relative to S0.

“S1 reduces GHGs by 32% relative to S0, and S2 and S3 by 46% and 48%, respectively (see Figure 2).”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Scenario S2 has a slightly lower VAS (11.15) than scenario S1 (11.50).

“However, its slightly lower VAS (11.15) compared to S1 (11.50) highlights a crucial trade-off.”

Approximately 1 wt% of the device's mass is unspecified.

“Nevertheless, due to complex alloys and the proprietary nature of supplier data, approximately 1 wt% of the device's mass is unspecified.”

Gold, present in trace amounts (~0.03 wt%), overwhelmingly accounts for 45.6% of material-related eco-costs.

“In contrast, gold, present in trace amounts (~0.03 wt%), overwhelmingly accounts for 45.6% material-related eco-costs.”

There is a pronounced divergence between material mass contribution and monetised environmental burden.

“A key finding from the eco-cost assessment is the pronounced divergence between material mass contribution and monetised environmental burden.”

The most significant VAS gains in S1 occur in value creation, value delivery and value capture.

“The most significant gains occur in value creation (through product longevity and repairability), value delivery (via more accessible repair options) and value capture (through modest improvements in economic viability).”

For other impact categories, scenarios S2 and S3 are the most favourable.

“When exploring other impact categories (4), scenarios S2 and S3 are the most favourable.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Scenario S3 has a total eco-cost of €41.01, only marginally lower than S2.

“Although its total eco-cost (€41.01) is only marginally lower than S2, it substantially outperforms all other scenarios in terms of strategic value alignment (VAS: 17.10).”

Extending the product life cycle through circular strategies yields substantial reductions in environmental burdens.

“However, extending the PLC through circular strategies (CBMs) yields substantial reductions in environmental burdens.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

S2's more targeted repair interventions deliver nearly equivalent environmental benefits at a lower refurbishment burden.

“In contrast, S2's more targeted repair interventions deliver nearly equivalent environmental benefits at a lower refurbishment burden.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

The integration of environmental and eco-cost assessments remains underdeveloped in the smartphone sector.

“Despite increasing attention to sustainable production and consumption, the integration of environmental and eco-cost assessments remains underdeveloped in the smartphone sector.”

• cites Nguyen et al. 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Fairphone provides the complete underlying infrastructure including spare parts, manuals and repair services.

“Crucially, the device is designed for a long life and easy repair, and the company provides the complete underlying infrastructure, including spare parts, manuals and repair services.”

The smartphone sector remains constrained by a narrow focus on end-of-life strategies, particularly recycling, while overlooking value retention strategies such as reuse, repair and refurbishment.

“Yet, the smartphone sector remains constrained by a narrow focus on end-of-life (EoL) strategies, particularly recycling while overlooking value retention strategies such as reuse, repair and refurbishment (Guo et al. 2023;Mayers et al. 2023).”

• cites Guo et al. 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mayers et al. 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

In practice, circular business models often remain abstract and detached from robust performance data, limiting their diffusion and impact.

“In practice, however, CBMs often remain abstract and detached from robust performance data, limiting their diffusion and impact (Santa-Maria et al. 2022;Geissdoerfer et al. 2023).”

• cites Santa-Maria et al. 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Geissdoerfer et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Climate change is critical due to the high-energy demand during manufacturing and use.

“For example, climate change is critical due to the high-energy demand during manufacturing and use (Sánchez et al. 2024).”

• cites Sánchez et al. 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Short product lifespans substantially increase the per-unit footprint of smartphones when impacts are amortised over time.

“In the smartphone market, the prevailing trend of short lifespans, driven by rapid technological obsolescence, perceived obsolescence and limited repairability (Welfens et al. 2016;Proske and Jaeger-Erben 2019), substantially increases the per-unit footprint when impacts are amortised over time.”

• cites Welfens et al. 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Proske and Jaeger-Erben 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Human and freshwater ecotoxicity account for harmful emissions from mining, component manufacturing and improper end-of-life treatment.

“Human and freshwater ecotoxicity account for harmful emissions from mining, component manufacturing and improper EoL treatment (Baldé et al. 2024).”

• cites Baldé et al. 2024Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Scenario S3 is the most promising circular business model.

“In contrast, scenario S3 emerges as the most promising CBM.”

S3's slightly higher upstream resource and energy demands largely offset the anticipated benefits of its extended use phase.

“Notably, although S3 entails more extensive refurbishment and achieves a longer operational lifetime, its slightly higher upstream resource and energy demands largely offset the anticipated benefits of the extended use phase.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Additional uncertainties arise in the derivation of custom eco-cost factors for fossil and mineral resource depletion.

“Additional uncertainties arise in the derivation of custom ecocost factors for fossil and mineral resource depletion.”

The high eco-cost of gold is primarily due to the high-energy intensity, extensive ore processing and significant pollution associated with extracting and refining precious metals from low-grade ores.

“This is primarily due to the high-energy intensity, extensive ore processing and significant pollution associated with extracting and refining such precious metals from low-grade ores.”

The anticipated environmental benefits of S3's extended lifespan are largely counterbalanced by the higher resource and energy intensity of its comprehensive refurbishment activities compared to S2's limited repair interventions.

“This suggests that the anticipated environmental benefits of S3's extended lifespan are largely counterbalanced by the higher resource and energy intensity associated with its comprehensive refurbishment activities, including cosmetic elements and extensive service offerings, compared to the limited repair interventions in S2.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Extending lifespan through DIY repair enhances operational and structural aspects of circularity more than it strengthens the perceived attractiveness of the offering.

“By contrast, value proposition shows only marginal improvement, indicating that extending lifespan through DIY repair enhances operational and structural aspects of circularity more than it strengthens the perceived attractiveness of the offering.”

The narrow eco-cost gap between S3 and S2 arises due to S3's comprehensive refurbishment under the product-service system model, which includes cosmetic replacements, repairs and upgrades.

“This narrow gap arises due to S3's comprehensive refurbishment under the product-service system model, which includes cosmetic replacements, repairs and upgrades.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

By internalising life cycle responsibilities and realigning OEM incentives around longevity and service quality rather than unit sales, S3 demonstrates a more robust framework for creating and capturing value for all stakeholders.

“By internalising life cycle responsibilities and realigning OEM incentives around longevity and service quality rather than unit sales, S3 demonstrates a more robust framework for creating and capturing value for all stakeholders.”

Optimising for environmental performance alone, without ensuring that the circular business model remains attractive and economically sustainable for key stakeholders, may not lead to the most effective circular economy transition or foster widespread adoption of sustainable practices.

“This finding suggests that optimising for environmental performance alone, without ensuring that the CBM remains attractive and economically sustainable for key stakeholders, may not lead to the most effective CE transition or foster widespread adoption of sustainable practices.”

The missing fraction's potential impact is significant because trace materials like gold carry disproportionately high eco-cost.

“While numerically minor, this missing fraction's potential impact is significant, as trace materials like gold carry disproportionately high eco-cost.”

S2's lower VAS stems from weaker performance in value capture and value proposition.

“This stems from weaker performance in value capture and value proposition.”

S0's score reflects minimal engagement with circular value creation, delivery, proposition or capture.

“As a conventional sales model with a 3-year lifespan and no repair options, its score reflects minimal engagement with circular value creation, delivery, proposition or capture.”

The progressive decline in eco-costs from S0 through S3 reflects the benefits of circular business models.

“The progressive decline in eco-costs from S0 through S3 reflects the benefits of CBMs.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Environmental gains do not automatically translate into stronger strategic alignment.

“This finding highlights that environmental gains do not automatically translate into stronger strategic alignment.”

The primary source of uncertainty in the eco-cost assessment lies in the device's material composition, rather than the eco-cost factors themselves.

“It should be noted that the primary source of uncertainty in the eco-cost assessment lies in the device's material composition, rather than the eco-cost factors themselves.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Eco-cost factors derived from prevention-based abatement costs are more stable than market-based commodity prices and less sensitive to short-term pricing volatility.

Merely extending the product life cycle through user initiative, without concurrent business model innovations that sustain both consumer value and OEM returns, may yield diminishing returns in strategic circular economy alignment.

“These trade-offs illustrate that merely extending PLC through user initiative, without concurrent business model innovations that sustain both consumer value and OEM returns, may yield diminishing returns in strategic CE alignment.”

The overall structure of the framework is generalisable to other industries.

“Finally, although the indicators used here were tailored to the smartphone sector to capture contextual barriers and enablers of circularity, the overall structure of the framework is generalisable.”

The synergy between S3's environmental and strategic performance reflects the systemic advantages of the product-as-a-service model.

“This synergy reflects the systemic advantages of the PaaS model”

The analysis indicates a consistent and significant trend of improved environmental performance with the adoption of circular strategies and more efficient resource utilisation over an extended product life cycle.

“Nonetheless, the analysis of the results for both scenarios indicates a consistent and significant trend of improved environmental performance with the adoption of circular strategies and more efficient resource utilisation over an extended PLC.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Circular business models consistently reduce eco-costs relative to the linear baseline, even under conservative assumptions.

“To summarise, whereas uncertainties in input data and cost factor derivation remain, CBMs consistently reduce eco-costs relative to the linear baseline, even under conservative assumptions.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Considerable benefits can arise from relatively simple circular interventions such as DIY repairs and moderate lifespan extension.

“This demonstrates the considerable benefits that can arise from relatively simple circular interventions such as DIY repairs and moderate lifespan extension.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Peripheral accessories and supporting digital infrastructure are consistently used across all scenarios and therefore do not affect the comparative outcome.

Maximising longevity through product-centric attributes can lead to a point of diminishing returns, beyond which the model's strategic alignment and overall viability begin to decline without additional systemic interventions, especially when such interventions fail to generate and sustain value for all key stakeholders.

“Instead, this approach can lead to a point of diminishing returns, beyond which the model's strategic alignment and overall viability begin to decline without additional systemic interventions, especially when such interventions fail to generate and sustain value for all key stakeholders (Graessler and Pottebaum 2021).”

• cites Graessler and Pottebaum 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Innovating value propositions is central to circular business model viability, as the transition demands more than just environmentally sound products.

“Therefore, innovating value propositions is central to CBM viability, as the transition demands more than just environmentally sound products.”

Simply maximising longevity through product-centric attributes like repairability or physical durability does not automatically yield enhanced circularity or business model resilience.

“The results show that simply maximising longevity through product-centric attributes like repairability or physical durability does not automatically yield enhanced circularity or business model resilience.”

Slowing strategies such as reuse, repair and refurbishment have value.

“This affirms the value of slowing strategies such as reuse, repair and refurbishment (Wieser and Tröger 2018;Bocken 2021).”

• cites Wieser and Tröger 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Bocken 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Closing material loops requires overcoming the systemic challenge through an efficient reverse logistics system.

“This involves overcoming the systemic challenge of closing material loops through an efficient reverse logistics system (Thapa et al. 2023).”

• cites Thapa et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Without ecosystem-level integration, even the most well-designed circular product risks falling short of its circular potential.

“Without this ecosystem-level integration, even the most well-designed circular product risks falling short of its circular potential.”

Actively strategising for mitigating rebound effects potentially caused by circular practices ensures that efficiency gains translate to net positive environmental outcomes and are not compromised by accelerated consumption.

“Furthermore, actively strategising for mitigating rebound effects, potentially caused by circular practices, ensures that efficiency gains translate to net positive environmental outcomes and are not compromised by accelerated consumption (Evans and Vermeulen 2021).”

• cites Evans and Vermeulen 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Service-based business models' ability to systemically address operational barriers, such as reverse logistics and service quality, allows for a fundamental reconfiguration of the value framework itself.

“Their ability to systemically address operational barriers, such as reverse logistics and service quality (Evans and Vermeulen 2021;Thapa et al. 2023), allows for a fundamental reconfiguration of the value framework itself.”

• cites Evans and Vermeulen 2021Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Thapa et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The VAS-eco-cost synthesis reveals that environmental optimisation and strategic circularity do not necessarily move in parallel.

“In summary, the VAS-eco-cost synthesis reveals that environmental optimisation and strategic circularity do not necessarily move in parallel.”

Real-world success of a reconfigured circular value architecture hinges not only on superior circular design and environmental benefits but equally on overcoming operational and market complexities inherent to that architecture.

“These challenges underscore that real-world success hinges not only on a superior circular design and its environmental benefits but equally on overcoming operational and market complexities inherent to this reconfigured circular value architecture.”

The effectiveness of design for repair or refurbishment is ultimately dependent on the participation of stakeholders in collaborative networks for professional servicing and advanced material recovery.

“The effectiveness of design for repair or refurbishment is ultimately dependent on the participation of stakeholders in collaborative networks for professional servicing and advanced material recovery (Richter et al. 2023;Shevchenko et al. 2023).”

• cites Richter et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Shevchenko et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Widespread circular economy adoption requires sophisticated infrastructure for returns, parts and quality-assured services.

“Widespread CE adoption requires sophisticated infrastructure for returns, parts and quality-assured services.”

For value creation to be scalable, it must extend beyond the firm to the entire value network.

“Finally, for value creation to be scalable, it must extend beyond the firm to the entire value network (Dembek et al. 2023).”

• cites Dembek et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Applied to the Fairphone 5 case, the framework demonstrates how environmental impacts, the intensity of circular interventions, business model design and consumer value interact to shape both environmental performance and strategic alignment.

“Applied to the Fairphone 5 case, it demonstrates how environmental impacts, the intensity of circular interventions, business model design and consumer value interact to shape both environmental performance and strategic alignment.”

Product-as-a-service also facilitates continuous and bidirectional information exchange, a principle often highlighted in literature but neglected in practice.

“Furthermore, PaaS also facilitates continuous and bidirectional information exchange, a principle often highlighted in literature but neglected in practice (Ahmad et al. 2023).”

• cites Ahmad et al. 2023Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Service-based models achieve stronger outcomes precisely because they reconfigure value creation, delivery, proposition and capture simultaneously.

“By contrast, service-based models achieve stronger outcomes precisely because they reconfigure value creation, delivery, proposition and capture simultaneously.”

The superiority of a circular business model is determined by the systemic interplay of its value creation, delivery and capture mechanisms, not just by its adherence to a single circular principle.

“Emphasising the need to assess CBMs from a holistic value framework perspective, as the superiority of a model is determined by the systemic interplay of its value creation, delivery and capture mechanisms, not just by its adherence to a single circular principle.”

This aligns original equipment manufacturer profitability directly with product longevity, resource efficiency and customer satisfaction.

“This aligns OEM profitability directly with product longevity, resource efficiency and customer satisfaction.”

The main barrier to transition is not just technological (e.g., repair infrastructure and reverse logistics) but contractual instead.

“Secondly, the findings indicate that the main barrier to transition is not just technological (e.g., repair infrastructure and reverse logistics) but contractual instead.”

While policies like the right-to-repair and extended producer responsibility are valuable, they are insufficient on their own.

“At the same time, the results show that while policies like the RtR and EPR are valuable, they are insufficient on their own.”

The feedback loop from product-as-a-service delivers value outward by providing stakeholders with consistent information on repairability, spare part availability and end-of-life options.

“This feedback loop delivers value outward by providing stakeholders with consistent information on repairability, spare part availability and EoL options.”

Ensuring multi-stakeholder value capture, especially for the implementing original equipment manufacturer, is fundamental to the long-term sustainability of circular business models.

“Ensuring multi-stakeholder value capture, especially for the implementing OEM, is fundamental to the long-term sustainability of CBMs (Centobelli et al. 2020).”

• cites Centobelli et al. 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Business models that retain product stewardship, such as product-as-a-service, are inherently incentivised and better positioned to optimise reverse logistical flows, ensuring high-quality professional interventions and efficient material management.

“Business models that retain product stewardship, such as a PaaS, are inherently incentivised and better positioned to optimise reverse logistical flows, ensuring high-quality professional interventions and efficient material management.”

Proactive circular business models are better positioned to navigate and even leverage evolving regulatory frameworks.

“Furthermore, proactive CBMs are better positioned to navigate and even leverage the evolving regulatory frameworks.”

The findings challenge the simplistic view of pursuing an isolated product longevity approach.

“Empirically, the findings enrich debates on the hierarchy of R-strategies and challenge the simplistic view of pursuing an isolated product longevity approach.”

Environmental gains and strategic viability do not always move in parallel.

“A key theoretical contribution lies in demonstrating that environmental gains and strategic viability do not always move in parallel.”

The single product case limits the generalisability of the findings.

“However, this also limits the generalisability of the findings.”