Enhancing learning and retention through the distribution of practice repetitions across multiple sessions
Open accessAbstract
The acquisition and retention of knowledge is affected by a multitude of factors including amount of practice, elapsed time since practice occurred, and the temporal distribution of practice. The third factor, temporal distribution of practice, is at the heart of research on the spacing effect. This research has consistently shown that separating practice repetitions by a delay slows acquisition but enhances retention. The current study addresses an empirical gap in the spacing effects literature. Namely, how does the allocation of a fixed number of practice repetitions among multiple sessions impact learning and retention? To address this question, we examined participants' acquisition and retention of declarative knowledge given different study schedules in which the number of practice repetitions increased, decreased, or remained constant across multiple acquisition sessions. The primary result was that retention depended strongly on the total number of sessions in which an item appeared, but not on how practice repetitions were distributed among those sessions. This outcome was consistent with predictions from a computational cognitive model of skill acquisition and retention called the Predictive Performance Equation (PPE). The success of the model in accounting for the patterns of performance across a large set of study schedules suggests that it can be used to tame the complexity of the design space and to identify schedules to enhance knowledge acquisition and retention.
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Spaced learning is an effective study alternative that improves memory when learning episodes are distributed over time rather than concentrated in a single session.
“In contrast, Al-Khasawneh (2023), Kim and Webb (2022) and Walsh et al. (2023) point to spaced learning as an effective study alternative that improves memory when learning episodes are distributed over time rather than concentrated in a single session.”
From Systematic Review of the Effectiveness of Neurodidactic Spaced Learning Strategies in Long-Term Memory (2026) · cites this paper as Walsh et al. (2023)
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- Authors
- Walsh, M. M., Krusmark, M. A., Jastrembski, T., Hansen, D. A., Honn, K. A., & Gunzelmann, G.
- Affiliations
- RAND Corporation (US)
- United States Air Force Research Laboratory (US)
- Washington State University Spokane (US)
- Corresponding author
- Walsh, Matthew M.
- Venue
- Memory & Cognition
- Published
- 2022-10-03
- Volume
- 51
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 455-472
- ISSN
- 0090-502X (ISSN-L)
- 1532-5946
- OpenAlex
- W4300689172
- Cited by
- 35
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 5
- FWCI
- 2.58
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Memory & Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Defense
- National Institutes of Health
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- spacing effect, retention, knowledge acquisition, declarative knowledge, study schedule, computational cognitive model, skill acquisition
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Learning, Retention, Psychology, Knowledge
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Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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