PREHISPANIC PRESENCE, SETTLEMENT PATTERNS AND ECOLOGICAL COMPLEMENTARITY IN THE LOMAS OF THE SAMA VALLEY, TACNA, PERU

Pedestrian survey of the middle Sama Valley (460-730 masl), Tacna, identified 47 archaeological sites dating from the Archaic to the Late Horizon Period.

“Pedestrian survey of the middle Sama Valley (460-730 masl), Tacna, on the far south coast of Peru has identified 47 archaeological sites dating from the Archaic to the Late Horizon Period.”

Camelid bones and marine mollusks in the middens of the largest Cabuza sites in Sama hint at the mixed subsistence practiced by their occupants.

“Camelid bones and marine mollusks in the middens of the largest Cabuza sites in Sama hint at the mixed subsistence practiced by their occupants.”

Site S-41 also featured stone wall foundations along the lower slopes of the bluff.

“Site S-41 also featured stone wall foundations along the lower slopes of the bluff.”

Cabuza site sizes form three groups: >25 ha (n=2), ~10 ha (n=2), and <5 ha (n=5).

“Cabuza site sizes form three groups: >25 ha (n=2), ~10 ha (n=2), and <5 ha (n=5) (Table 1).”

Of the 21 sites with Late Horizon ceramic components, twelve contained only Inca-altiplano ceramics.

“Of the 21 sites with Late Horizon ceramic components, twelve contained only Inca-altiplano ceramics (Table 1).”

Site S-15 featured low semi-circular stone structures whose location and orientation suggests them to be windbreakers.

“Site S-15, one of the exclusively Archaic sites, featured low semi-circular stone structures whose location and orientation suggests them to be windbreakers (Figure 5a).”

Sites located on the left valley margin are more numerous (n=31/47) than on the right valley margin (n=16/47).

“Sites located on the left valley marginare more numerous (n=31/47) than on the right valley margin (n=16/47); they are also significantly smaller on average (24753 m 2 ) than sites on the right valley margin (97896 m 2 ) (two-tailed t-test p-value=.01).”

The only putatively Formative site was located just above the valley bottom near the river.

“The only putatively Formative site was located just above the valley bottom near the river.”

Noticeable in the middle Sama Valley is the absence of large settlements and funerary mounds that characterize Formative period occupations to the north and south of Sama, and which often occupy desert terrace bluffs or elevated positions overlooking the valley.

“Noticeable in the middle Sama Valley is the absent of large settlements and funerary mounds that characterize Formative period occupations to the north and south of Sama, and which often occupy desert terrace bluffs or elevated positions overlooking the valley (Goldstein 2000;Muñoz 1987;Owen 1993).”

• cites Goldstein 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Muñoz 1987Not matched

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• cites Owen 1993Not matched

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Sites with Inca materials and architecture are located an average distance of 262 m from the valley bottom.

“Sites with Inca materials and architecture are located an average distance of 262 m from the valley bottom.”

A fragment of a fishhook weight similar to artifacts found at Quebrada de los Burros was recovered at site S-4 on the lower slopes of the foothills 800 m from the valley margin.

“A fragment of a fishhook weight similar to artifacts found at QLB was recovered at site S-4 on the lower slopes of the foothills 800 m from the valley margin (Figure 6i).”

In Sama, there is no evidence for an earlier presence of colonization by Tiwanaku groups such as occurred in Moquegua, Azapa, and Caplina.

“In Sama, there is no evidence for an earlier presence of colonization by Tiwanaku groups such as occurred in Moquegua, Azapa, and Caplina (Goldstein 1996(Goldstein , 2005;;Muñoz and Gordillo 2016).”

• cites Goldstein 1996Not matched

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• cites Goldstein 2005Not matched

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• cites Muñoz and Gordillo 2016Not matched

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Overall, eight sites in the middle Sama Valley present evidence of non-Cabuza-style ceramic styles during this period.

“Overall, eight sites in the middle Sama Valley present evidence of non-Cabuza-style ceramic styles during this period (Table 1).”

There is a marked scarcity of sites below 480 masl on both valley margins.

“There is a marked scarcity of sites below 480 masl on both valley margins.”

Only three sites featured Tiwanaku-style ceramic sherds (n=13) resembling the Chen Chen substyle (8th-10th century AD) of Moquegua.

“Only three sites featured Tiwanaku-style ceramic sherds (n=13) resembling the Chen Chen substyle (8 th -10 th century AD) of Moquegua (Goldstein 1985) (Figure 7a).”

• cites Goldstein 1985Not matched

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The association between Saxamar/Inca-Pacajes ceramic materials and Inca Polychrome styles in the middle Sama Valley shows a connection between altiplano and Inca imperial investments.

“The association between Saxamar/Inca-Pacajes ceramic materials and Inca Polychrome styles in the middle Sama Valley shows a connection between altiplano and Inca imperial investments.”

Two additional ceramic sites with stone architecture but without surface materials are putatively assigned to the Archaic period.

“Two additional ceramic sites with stone architecture but without surface materials are putatively assigned to the Archaic period.”

Many Archaic sites occupy bluff edges and hilltops that offer expansive views of the lomas zone and the valley bottom.

“Many of these sites occupy bluff edges and hilltops that offer expansive views of the lomas zone and the valley bottom.”

One site, S-41, putatively dated to the Formative Period was recorded along the left bank of the river just above the canal line.

“One site, S-41, putatively dated to the Formative Period was recorded along the left bank of the river just above the canal line.”

Archaic-period lithic tools were crafted from highland and lowland raw materials.

“Archaic-period lithic tools were crafted from highland and lowland raw materials.”

Full-coverage pedestrian survey of the middle Sama Valley on the far south coast of Peru shows human presence in the area since the Archaic Period.

“Full-coverage pedestrian survey of the middle Sama Valley on the far south coast of Peru shows human presence in the area since the Archaic Period.”

The mean distance of Cabuza site centroids from the valley is 246 m.

“The mean distance of Cabuza site centroids from the valley is 246 m.”

Only five sites also have ceramic evidence from the previous period (S-2, S-6, S-34, S-35, S-43).

“Only five sites also have ceramic evidence from the previous period (S-2, S-6, S-34, S-35, S-43).”

Proximity analysis using the Near tool in ArcGIS shows that calculated centroids of sites with substantial Archaic-period occupations are located a mean distance of 415 m from the valley bottom.

“Proximity analysis using the Near tool in ArcGIS shows that calculated centroids of sites with substantial Archaicperiod occupations are located a mean distance of 415 m from the valley bottom.”

Satellite imagery shows the road continuing in westward direction for 5 km before turning north into the Andean foothills.

“Satellite imagery shows it continuing in westward direction for 5 km before turning north into the Andean foothills.”

Prehispanic road sections were discovered in the middle valley.

“Prehispanic road sections were discovered in the middle valley (Figure 10).”

Pedestrian survey of the middle Sama Valley shows Archaic-period sites and materials concentrating along the Andean piedmont above 550 masl.

“Pedestrian survey of the middle Sama Valley shows Archaic-period sites and materials concentrating along the Andean piedmont above 550 masl.”

A similar structure was also registered at site S-25 together with the foundations of a round stone structure atop a low platform and a small rectangular building.

“A similar structure was also registered at site S-25 together with the foundations of a round stone structure atop a low platform and a small rectangular building (Figure 11b).”

Only three sites are located just above the canal line close to the floodplain (S-41, S-42, S-47).

“Only three sites are located just above the canal line close to the floodplain (S-41, S-42, S-47).”

Cabuza sites are situated near the bluff edge on both sides of the valley.

“Cabuza sites are situated near the bluff edge on both sides of the valley.”

Archaic-period lithic artifacts recovered during survey conform to types reported throughout the southern Andes.

“Archaic-period lithic artifacts recovered during survey conform to types reported throughout the southern Andes.”

Site S-41 has two subterranean burials that were exposed during modern excavations.

“This multi-component site has two subterranean burials that were exposed during modern excavations.”

The burials at S-41 were unlined pits covered with matted plant materials (reeds, grasses).

“The burials were unlined pits covered with matted plant materials (reeds, grasses).”

A notable drop in artifact densities only 100 m beyond the valley rim within the 300 m-wide survey corridor approximates artifact densities beyond the more densely occupied valley margins.

“A notable drop in artifact densities only 100 m beyond the valley rim within our 300 m-wide survey corridor approximates artifact densities beyond the more densely occupied valley margins.”

Sites on the left valley margin are significantly smaller on average (24753 m2) than sites on the right valley margin (97896 m2) (two-tailed t-test p-value=.01).

“Sites located on the left valley marginare more numerous (n=31/47) than on the right valley margin (n=16/47); they are also significantly smaller on average (24753 m 2 ) than sites on the right valley margin (97896 m 2 ) (two-tailed t-test p-value=.01).”

Prehispanic roads in the middle Sama Valley fit the description of Inca coastal roads.

“Although only partially preserved, prehispanic roads in the middle Sama Valley fit the description of Inca coastal roads (Hyslop 1984).”

• cites Hyslop 1984Not matched

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Alto Poquera (S-46) forms the fourth largest Cabuza settlement.

“Located downriver from sites S-44 and Los Batanes, Alto Poquera (S-46) forms the fourth largest Cabuza settlement.”

The 47 archaeological sites identified in the middle Sama Valley covered almost one third of the survey area (2.33 km2 of 7.7 km2).

“The 47 archaeological sites we identified in the middle Sama Valley covered almost one third of the survey area (2.33 km 2 of 7.7 km 2 ) (Figure 3, Table 1).”

The best-preserved Cabuza settlement, Los Batanes (S-45), is located on the right river margin (510 masl).

“The best-preserved Cabuza settlement, Los Batanes (S-45), is located on the right river margin (510 masl).”

Archaic sites ranged from small dense dispersions of lithic debitage to extensive sites littered with lithic debitage, cores, preforms and broken tools that indicate expedient production likely taking place over extended periods.

“The sites ranged from small dense dispersions of lithic debitage (S-9, S-16) to extensive sites littered with lithic debitage, cores, preforms and broken tools that indicate expedient production likely taking place over extended periods (S-2, S-3, S-6, S-13, S-15).”

Exposed midden deposits at Cabuza sites contain camelid remains and marine mollusks.

“Exposed midden deposits at Cabuza sites contain camelid remains and marine mollusks.”

At sites S-45 and S-46, settlement area as defined by enclosed architecture corresponds to only approximately half of the area covered by surface materials (S-45: 145350/253974 m2; S-46: 53068/101806 m2).

“Site area estimates are derived from surface material dispersion, yet at sites S-45 and S-46 settlement area as defined by enclosed architecture corresponds to only approximately half of the area covered by surface materials (S-45: 145350/253974 m 2 ; S-46: 53068/101806 m 2 ) 1 .”

North of Sama la Antigua, a 950m-long stretch of road was identified (650 masl).

“North of Sama la Antigua, a 950m-long stretch of road was identified (650 masl).”

Los Batanes features multi-room compounds built from stone, adobe, and gypsum around large orthogonal patios.

“It features multi-room compounds built from stone, adobe, and gypsum around large orthogonal patios.”

Abandoned settlements on the right valley margin lack such architecture.

“Abandoned settlements on the right valley margin lack such architecture.”

Across the valley, three smaller contemporaneous sites with Inca wares dispersed over five kilometers less than 150 m from the edge of the desert terrace.

“Across the valley, three smaller contemporaneous sites with Inca wares dispersed over five kilometers less than 150 m from the edge of the desert terrace.”

Inca Polychrome ceramics were only found at Sama la Antigua and along the central left margin of the valley.

“Inca Polychrome ceramics were only found at Sama la Antigua and along the central left margin of the valley (Figure 9c).”

The quantity of Tiwanaku-style artifacts found in the middle Sama Valley is negligible compared to that of later Cabuza, Gentilar, Pocoma, and San Miguel assemblages.

“The quantity of Tiwanaku-style artifacts found in the middle Sama Valley is negligible compared to that of later Cabuza, Gentilar, Pocoma, and San Miguel assemblages.”

At sites S-44 and S-45, Tiwanaku-style ceramics constitute minor components of a predominantly Cabuza-style assemblage.

“At sites S-44 and S-45, Tiwanaku-style ceramics constitute minor components of a predominantly Cabuza-style assemblage.”

The road segment north of Sama la Antigua paralleling the Andean piedmont leads to the highlands (Moqi) and the coast (Tacahuay) of Locumba.

“The road segment north of Sama la Antigua paralleling the Andean piedmont leads to the highlands (Moqi) and the coast (Tacahuay) of Locumba.”

The site of Sama la Antigua best reflects this affinity with its multicultural ceramic assemblages.

“The site of Sama la Antigua best reflects this affinity with its multicultural ceramic assemblages.”

All other sites cluster along the margins of the desert bluff and the slopes of the Andean foothills.

“All others cluster along the margins of the desert bluff and the slopes of the Andean foothills.”

Lomas life depends on a dual water regime of rivers fed by high-elevation snow and rainfall during the austral summer and thick coastal fogs during the austral winter.

“Here, life depends on a dual water regime of rivers fed by high-elevation snow and rainfall during the austral summer (December-March), and thick coastal fogs (garúa, camanchaca) (<100 mm) during the austral winter (June-September).”

• cites Ohga 1992:343 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Inca Imperial and altiplano style (Pacajes, Saxamar, Chilpe) ceramic assemblages from Sama la Antigua suggest a multicultural occupation.

“Inca Imperial and altiplano style (Pacajes, Saxamar, Chilpe) ceramic assemblages from Sama la Antigua suggest a multicultural occupation (Trimborn 1981).”

• cites Trimborn 1981Not matched

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The hypothesis that lomas gradually disappeared due to increased aridity over the last millennia has not been substantiated across the region.

“Although some scholars have argued for the gradual disappearance of lomas due to increased aridity over the last millennia (Lanning 1967), this hypothesis has not been substantiated across the region (Craig 1985).”

• cites Lanning 1967Not matched

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• cites Craig 1985Not matched

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Another small Inca site, Qhile, in the Susapaya region (3,200 masl) indicates Inca control extending the length of the Sama valley.

“Another small Inca site, Qhile, in the Susapaya region (3,200 masl) indicates Inca control extending the length of the Sama valley (Williams et al. 2009:628).”

• cites Williams et al. 2009:628Not matched

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The middle Sama River floodplain supports a riparian ecosystem that facilitates year-round agriculture.

“Bordered by steep sandy slopes, the 1-2 kmwide floodplain of the middle Sama River supports a riparian ecosystem that facilitates year-round agriculture (Marquet et al. 1998:598).”

• cites Marquet et al. 1998:598Not matched

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The importance of lomas for complex agrarian societies during later prehispanic times is evident in early ethnohistorical documents.

“The importance of lomas, zones of seasonal vegetation growth along the hyperarid Pacific coast, for complex agrarian societies during later prehispanic times is evident in early ethnohistorical documents.”

• cites Diez de San Miguel 1964[1567]Not matched

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• cites Rostworowski 1981Not matched

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• cites Vasquez de Espinoza 1959[1669]Not matched

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Lomas attracted animals and humans from the highlands and coasts as early as the Archaic Period.

“Lomas attracted animals and humans from the highlands and coasts as early as the Archaic Period (Engel 1973:279).”

• cites Engel 1973:279 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The Inca occupation of the Sama Valley centered at the site of Sama la Antigua (or Sama Grande; 570 masl) near the opening of the middle valley.

“The Inca occupation of the valley centered at the site of Sama la Antigua (or Sama Grande; 570 masl) near the opening of the middle valley (Covey 2000).”

• cites Covey 2000 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

During periods of increased humidity and decreased ENSO activity in the Early and Middle Holocene, freshwater springs and the Pacific Ocean attracted seasonal and possibly even year-round human occupations to Quebrada de los Burros.

“During periods of increased humidity and decreased ENSO activity in the Early (ca.9600-8600 cal.BP) and Middle Holocene (ca.7400-6800 cal.BP), freshwater springs and the Pacific Ocean attracted seasonal and possibly even year-round human occupations to QLB (Lavallée et al. 2011:342).”

• cites Lavallée et al. 2011:342 sourceCheck pending

Early hunter-gatherer populations occupied lomas and riparian environments in the middle Sama Valley in connection with coastal-highland mobility.

“Early hunter-gatherer populations occupied lomas and riparian environments in connection with coastal-highland mobility.”

These assemblages are not frequent enough to reflect large-scale cultural or ethnic diversity among the valley's permanent residents during this time.

“These assemblages are not frequent enough to reflect large-scale cultural or ethnic diversity among the valley's permanent residents during this time.”

In Sama, such a move in site location also afforded inhabitants better access to lomas pasture during a period that was characterized by extended highland droughts and increased ENSO activity.

“In Sama, such a move in site location also afforded inhabitants better access to lomas pasture during a period that was characterized by extended highland droughts and increased ENSO activity (Zaro and Umire 2005).”

• cites Zaro and Umire 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

From their direction it can be deduced that this road connected sites with Inca-style ceramic materials and architecture (S-13 and S-25).

“From their direction it can be deduced that this road connected sites with Inca-style ceramic materials and architecture (S-13 and S-25).”

The shift of Cabuza-style sites to lower elevations and nearer to the valley suggests an agricultural subsistence focus.

“The shift of Cabuza-style sites to lower elevations and nearer to the valley suggests an agricultural subsistence focus.”

Coastal or intermontane groups may have sought seasonal access to piedmont or lomas resources.

“Nonetheless, coastal or intermontane groups may have sought seasonal access to piedmont or lomas resources.”

Settled between the valley bottom and desert pampa, agropastoralist Cabuza populations would have had easy access to multiple local resource niches in addition to the coast and highlands.

“Settled between the valley bottom and desert pampa, agropastoralist Cabuza populations would have had easy access to multiple local resource niches in addition to the coast and highlands.”

A high mean distance of Archaic-period sites from the valley bottom suggests hunter-gatherers probably followed transhumant camelids, cervids, and small game to the Andean foothills from the highlands or coast.

“A high mean distance of Archaic-period sites from the valley bottom suggests hunter-gatherers probably followed transhumant camelids, cervids, and small game to the Andean foothills from the highlands or coast.”

The formal characteristics of the roads found in the middle Sama Valley tie in well with the local and regional geography of the Late Horizon period.

“It is possible that the construction and use of roads occurred earlier, but the formal characteristics of the roads found in the middle Sama Valley tie in well with the local and regional geography of the Late Horizon period.”

The presence of Gentilar, San Miguel, and Pocoma groups likely postdated the arrival of Cabuza populations in Sama.

“The presence of Gentilar, San Miguel, and Pocoma groups likely postdated the arrival of Cabuza populations in Sama (Gordillo 1996;Uribe 1999).”

• cites Gordillo 1996Not matched

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• cites Uribe 1999Not matched

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In Sama, mitimaes numbered between 200 and 380 heads of household from the upper and lower moieties of the Lupaqa kingdom.

“In Sama, mitimaes numbered between 200 and 380 heads of household from the upper and lower moieties of the Lupaqa kingdom (1964[1567]:F.31v.66).”

• cites Diez de San Miguel 1964[1567]:F.31v.66Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Architecture at sites S-13 and S-25 indicates a more formal affiliation with the Inca occupation of the middle Sama Valley.

“Architecture at sites S-13 and S-25 indicates a more formal affiliation with the Inca occupation of the middle Sama Valley.”

The exclusion of the valley bottom from the survey zone introduces a bias against floodplain occupations.

“The exclusion of the valley bottom from the survey zone introduces another bias against floodplain occupations.”

The incursion of Cabuza populations into Sama dramatically increased the scale of human presence and agropastoralist activities in the valley.

“The incursion of Cabuza populations into Sama dramatically increased the scale of human presence and agropastoralist activities in the valley.”

Guano was procured by camelid caravans travelling 8 to 9 leguas (circa 40 km, or the distance from Sama la Antigua to the coast).

“Unique to Sama were the intensive cultivation of ají peppers, the availability of lomas pasture, and the proximity to guano, which was procured by camelid caravans travelling 8 to 9 leguas (circa 40 km, or the distance from Sama la Antigua to the coast) (1964 [1567]:F.61v.126).”

• cites Diez de San Miguel 1964[1567]:F.61v.126Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The wide expanse of the flat desert terrace below 600 masl provides no such advantage.

“The wide expanse of the flat desert terrace below 600 masl provides no such advantage.”

Preserved perimeter walls and projectile points at Los Batanes and Alto Poquera attest that Cabuza populations in the middle Sama Valley experienced real or perceived threats.

“Finally, preserved perimeter walls and projectile points at Los Batanes and Alto Poquera attest that Cabuza populations in the middle Sama Valley experienced real or perceived threats.”

Elevated places housing windbreakers, campsites, and expedient tool production sites provided Archaic hunter-gatherers with ideal vantage points.

“Elevated places housing windbreakers, campsites, and expedient tool production sites provided Archaic hunter-gatherers with ideal vantage points.”

The selection of survey area near the valley introduces a bias in favor of agricultural settlements and at the expense of evidence for hunting or pastoralism farther from the valley.

“The selection of survey area near the valley introduces a bias in favor of agricultural settlements and at the expense of evidence for hunting or pastoralism (e.g., corrals, windbreakers) farther from the valley.”

The scale and complexity of the site's architecture demonstrates its likely administrative importance.

“The scale and complexity of the site's architecture (see Trimborn1981: Plano 2), much of which no longer exists today, demonstrates its likely administrative importance.”

• cites Trimborn 1981: Plano 2Not matched

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As one of the case studies from which Murra (1972) developed his vertical complementarity model, the Sama Valley naturally lends itself to archaeological investigations of long-distance exchange and highland-to-coast mobility.

“As one of the case studies from which Murra (1972) developed his”

• cites Murra 1972Not matched

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Small quantities of Gentilar-style and San Miguel-style ceramics at piedmont sites (S-2, S-3, S-6, S-12) indicate that better views, more defensible locations, or access to different ecological niches were of interest to other, non-Cabuza occupants of the valley.

“Small quantities of Gentilar-style and San Miguelstyle ceramics at piedmont sites (S-2, S-3, S-6, S-12) indicate that better views, more defensible locations, or access to different ecological niches were of interest to other, non-Cabuza occupants of the valley.”

The establishment of several Inca sites, including the large site of Sama la Antigua, suggests that the attraction the Sama piedmont held for the altiplano kingdoms was also shared by the Inca Empire.

“The establishment of several Inca sites, including the large site of Sama la Antigua, suggests that the attraction the Sama piedmont held for the altiplano kingdoms was also shared by the Inca Empire.”

These examples signal a need for caution in the reliability of area estimates from surface material dispersions for other sites, such as S-44 (27 ha) where no architecture was observed due to heavy disturbance from modern plowing.

“Although lack of surface architecture at most Cabuza-style sites prevents us from conducting similar calculations elsewhere, these examples signal a need for caution in the reliability of area estimates from surface material dispersions for other sites, such as S-44 (27 ha) where no architecture was observed due to heavy disturbance from modern plowing.”

Infrastructure, such as an administrative center and roads, integrated Sama with the imperial landscape of the south-central Andes.

“Infrastructure, such as an administrative center and roads, integrated Sama with the imperial landscape of the south-central Andes.”

A notable shift in land-use and scale of human occupation of the middle Sama Valley occurred with the appearance of Cabuza populations during the terminal Middle Horizon.

“A notable shift in land-use and scale of human occupation of the middle Sama Valley occurred with the appearance of Cabuza populations during the terminal Middle Horizon.”

The left margin of the valley may have been a preferred route to the coast, avoiding the abandoned walled settlements of earlier periods on the right valley margin.

“The left margin of the valley may have been a preferred route to the coast, avoiding the abandoned walled settlements of earlier periods on the right valley margin.”

The importance of controlling movement through the valley is also made evident by road segments and smaller Inca installations along the left valley margin.

“The importance of controlling movement through the valley is also made evident by road segments and smaller Inca installations along the left valley margin.”

Movement along the left valley margin would have facilitated southward mobility to the Caplina, Lluta, and Azapa valleys.

“Movement along the left valley margin would have facilitated southward mobility to the Caplina, Lluta, and Azapa valleys.”

We cannot rule out the seasonal importance of lomas for pastoralists given that Cabuza populations in Azapa are described as agropastoralists based on mortuary assemblages.

“Nevertheless we cannot rule out the seasonal importance of lomas for pastoralists given that Cabuza populations in Azapa are described as agropastoralists based on mortuary assemblages (Berenguer et al. 1989;Rivera 1985).”

• cites Berenguer et al. 1989Not matched

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• cites Rivera 1985Not matched

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Like the tambos of the south coast, Sama la Antigua had access to longitudinal and vertical sections of the Qhapaq Ñan.

“Like the tambos of the south coast, Sama la Antigua had access to longitudinal and vertical sections of the Qhapaq Ñan.”

The geography and ecology of the middle Sama Valley uniquely shape its prehispanic occupation compared to neighboring valleys.

“The geography and ecology of the middle Sama Valley uniquely shape its prehispanic occupation compared to neighboring valleys.”

The Sama Valley played an important role especially for highland populations due to its unique geographical and ecological features, among them access to the Pacific coast and the richness of the valley's lomas.

“It has also shown, as hinted by the 1567 visita of Garci Diez de San Miguel, that the Sama Valley played an important role especially for highland populations due to its unique geographical and ecological features, among them access to the Pacific coast and the richness of the valley's lomas.”

• cites Diez de San Miguel 1964 [1567]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Highlanders took a renewed interest in the middle Sama Valley, most likely for its agricultural potential and access to coastal resources.

“Two hundred years before Diez de San Miguel reported Pacajes and Lupaqa mitimaes in the region; highlanders took a renewed interest in the middle Sama Valley, most likely for its agricultural potential and access to coastal resources.”