Cited by 555Statistical Methods in Clinical TrialsAdvanced Causal Inference TechniquesMeta-analysis and systematic reviews

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Issues in Outcomes Research: An Overview of Randomization Techniques for Clinical Trials

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Kang, Minsoo, Ragan, Brian G., Park, Jae-Hyeon·2008·Journal of Athletic Training

DOI 10.4085/1062-6050-43.2.215PMC PMC2267325

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Abstract

Objective: To review and describe randomization techniques used in clinical trials, including simple, block, stratified, and covariate adaptive techniques. Background: Clinical trials are required to establish treatment efficacy of many athletic training procedures. In the past, we have relied on evidence of questionable scientific merit to aid the determination of treatment choices. Interest in evidence-based practice is growing rapidly within the athletic training profession, placing greater emphasis on the importance of well-conducted clinical trials. One critical component of clinical trials that strengthens results is random assignment of participants to control and treatment groups. Although randomization appears to be a simple concept, issues of balancing sample sizes and controlling the influence of covariates a priori are important. Various techniques have been developed to account for these issues, including block, stratified randomization, and covariate adaptive techniques. Advantages: Athletic training researchers and scholarly clinicians can use the information presented in this article to better conduct and interpret the results of clinical trials. Implementing these techniques will increase the power and validity of findings of athletic medicine clinical trials, which will ultimately improve the quality of care provided.

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“The randomization method used will likely reduce sampling biases by distributing patients at different osteonecrosis stages equally among groups (Kang et al., 2008).”
Method
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“To solve this problem, we implemented stratified randomization random sampling which considers sex and age [7].”
Method
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Techniques for randomization and allocation for clinical trials
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“14 .”
Effect of dynamic taping on neck pain, disability, and quality of life in patients with chronic non-specific neck pain: a randomized sham-control trial
Sidiq, M., Chahal, A., Janakiraman, B., Kashoo, F. Z., Kedia, S. K., Kashyap, N., Rai, R. H., Vyas, N., Veeragoudhaman, T. S., Vajrala, K. R., et al. (2024) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.16799 · Cited by 9
“Based on the criteria for inclusion, an independent observer used block procedure with a block size of 6 for the randomization of participants in a 1:1 allocation ratio into the DT or sham group ( Kang, Ragan & Park, 2008 ).”
Method
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“Because some variables needed to be controlled and participants were being enrolled continually during the current study, a covariate adaptive randomization was used (Kang et al., 2008).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
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“Based on the mechanism of selection of participants into groups, we distinguish between simple, block, stratified and covariate adaptive randomization (Kang et al. 2008).”
Method
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“The major limitation of the current study is the relatively small sample size, which may have contributed to the differences in the baseline characteristics between the two groups;[21] nevertheless, the means presented for all the endpoints in the study were adjusted for the confounding influence of these variables.”
Background
Safety and Efficacy of Losartan 50 mg in Reducing Blood Pressure among Patients with Post-Dialysis Euvolemic Hypertension: A Randomized Control Trial
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“Kang, M.; Ragan, B.G.; Park, J.H. Issues in outcomes research: An overview of randomization techniques for clinical trials.”
Method
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“The block randomization method was used to randomly divide the participants to afford an equal sample size in each group [37].”
Method
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“All the schools were identi ﬁ ed as Educational Territories of Priority Intervention [PT: Territórios Educativos de Intervenção Prioritária - TEIP] in the Northern region of Portugal.”
Influential
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“Given that no known covariate affected this study, block randomization was considered an appropriate measure (Kang et al., 2008).”
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“…animals more broadly (Carbone and Austin 2016; Percie Du Sert et al. 2020), weak methodological rigour and low reporting quality can result in bias (Altman and Bland 1999), reduced replicability (Kafkafi et al. 2018), and overstated outcomes and conclusions (Bebarta et al. 2003; Kang et al. 2008).”
The impact of randomization techniques on the performance of pre-post design models
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“This approach is straightforward to implement and minimize the risk of selection bias, as the assignment of participants is entirely based on chance [17].”
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“Patients who had given their written informed consents were randomized into either the experimental group or control group by using block randomization procedure as described by Kang et al. (2008) in order to generate similar numbers of participants between groups.”
Method
Evidenzlevel klinischer Interventionsstudien – Mind the biases
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“First, despite randomization, the group sizes were uneven likely due to the use of one-to-one randomization with less than 100 participants due to imbalances in probabilities [41].”
Comparing safety, performance and user perceptions of a patient-specific indication-based prescribing tool with current practice: a mixed methods randomised user testing study
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“Recruited clinicians were block randomised 16 by the primary researcher into one of four groups (online supplemental appendix 4) using an online random team generator.”
Influential
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“While the sample size is relatively small, random assignment to experimental and control groups enhances internal validity by reducing selection bias [90,91]; however, it is a limitation this study acknowledges.”
The effect of uncoated paper application on skin moisture, risk of pressure injury and incidence of pressure injury in neurologic intensive care unit patients: A randomized controlled trial
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Authors: Kang, M., Ragan, B. G., & Park, J.-H.
Affiliations: Middle Tennessee State University (US)
University of Northern Iowa (US)
Korea National Sport University (KR)
ORCID: Kang, Minsoo
Park, Jae-Hyeon
Venue: Journal of Athletic Training
Publisher: National Athletic Trainers' Association
Published: 2008-03
Volume: 43
Issue: 2
Pages: 215-221
ISSN: 1062-6050 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.4085/1062-6050-43.2.215
PMC: PMC2267325
OpenAlex: W2103799103
Semantic Scholar: 76a894a7f31f671125792589418911fc63574599
Cited by: 555
References: 31
Citations by year: 2026: 54 · 2025: 79 · 2024: 90 · 2023: 54 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 17 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 15
FWCI: 6.61
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Locations: Journal of Athletic Training (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
UNI ScholarWorks (University of Northern Iowa) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
Keywords: randomization technique, clinical trials, block randomization, stratified randomization, covariate-adaptive randomization, covariate control, evidence-based practice
MeSH terms: Clinical Trials as Topic, Female, Humans, Male, Random Allocation, Outcome Assessment, Health Care, Evidence-Based Medicine

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Issues in Outcomes Research: An Overview of Randomization Techniques for Clinical Trials

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