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Black carbon in the Arctic: the underestimated role of gas flaring and residential combustion emissions
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Abstract
Abstract. Arctic Haze is a seasonal phenomenon with high concentrations of accumulation-mode aerosols occurring in the Arctic in winter and early spring. Chemistry transport models and climate chemistry models struggle to reproduce this phenomenon, and this has recently prompted changes in aerosol removal schemes to remedy the modeling problems. In this paper, we show that shortcomings in current emission data sets are at least as important. We perform a 3 yr model simulation of black carbon (BC) with the Lagrangian particle dispersion model FLEXPART. The model is driven with a new emission data set which includes emissions from gas flaring. While gas flaring is estimated to contribute less than 3% of global BC emissions in this data set, flaring dominates the estimated BC emissions in the Arctic (north of 66° N). Putting these emissions into our model, we find that flaring contributes 42% to the annual mean BC surface concentrations in the Arctic. In March, flaring even accounts for 52% of all Arctic BC near the surface. Most of the flaring BC remains close to the surface in the Arctic, so that the flaring contribution to BC in the middle and upper troposphere is small. Another important factor determining simulated BC concentrations is the seasonal variation of BC emissions from domestic combustion. We have calculated daily domestic combustion emissions using the heating degree day (HDD) concept based on ambient air temperature and compare results from model simulations using emissions with daily, monthly and annual time resolution. In January, the Arctic-mean surface concentrations of BC due to domestic combustion emissions are 150% higher when using daily emissions than when using annually constant emissions. While there are concentration reductions in summer, they are smaller than the winter increases, leading to a systematic increase of annual mean Arctic BC surface concentrations due to domestic combustion by 68% when using daily emissions. A large part (93%) of this systematic increase can be captured also when using monthly emissions; the increase is compensated by a decreased BC burden at lower latitudes. In a comparison with BC measurements at six Arctic stations, we find that using daily-varying domestic combustion emissions and introducing gas flaring emissions leads to large improvements of the simulated Arctic BC, both in terms of mean concentration levels and simulated seasonality. Case studies based on BC and carbon monoxide (CO) measurements from the Zeppelin observatory appear to confirm flaring as an important BC source that can produce pollution plumes in the Arctic with a high BC/CO enhancement ratio, as expected for this source type. Our results suggest that it may not be "vertical transport that is too strong or scavenging rates that are too low" and "opposite biases in these processes" in the Arctic and elsewhere in current aerosol models, as suggested in a recent review article (Bond et al., 2013), but missing emission sources and lacking time resolution of the emission data that are causing opposite model biases in simulated BC concentrations in the Arctic and in the mid-latitudes.
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“Transport from lower latitude Asia and Eurasia increases their content in the upper atmosphere, whereas local emissions of aerosols substantially affect the transparency of the atmosphere and the formation and structure of clouds (Stohl et al ., 2013; Zhao and Garrett, 2015).”
From Ecological and conceptual consequences of Arctic pollution (2020) · cites this paper as Stohl et al., 2013
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“In the past years, it has been recognized that fl aring linked to oil and gas extraction, particularly in northern Russia, is an important source of BC, suggested to be 66% of the total Arctic BC emissions (Stohl et al., 2013, 2015).”
From Local Arctic Air Pollution: A Neglected but Serious Problem (2018) · cites this paper as Stohl et al., 2013
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“It has been recognized for some time that metal smelting activities in northern Russia at Norilsk and the Kola Peninsula in northwest Russia are a large source of SO2 emissions in the Arctic (e.g., Stohl et al., 2013).”
From Local Arctic Air Pollution: A Neglected but Serious Problem (2018) · cites this paper as Stohl et al., 2013
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Chen, Y., Zhi, G., Feng, Y., Tian, C., Bi, X., Li, J., & Zhang, G. (2015) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2015.04.012 · Cited by 71
Field Measurements of Black Carbon Yields from Gas Flaring
Conrad, B., & Johnson, M. R. (2016) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.6b03690 · Cited by 71
Local Arctic air pollution: Sources and impacts
Law, K. S., Roiger, A., Thomas, J. L., Marelle, L., Raut, J.-C., Dalsøren, S., Fuglestvedt, J., Tuccella, P., Weinzierl, B., & Schlager, H. (2017) · Ambio · doi:10.1007/s13280-017-0962-2 · Cited by 71
Variability, timescales, and nonlinearity in climate responses to black carbon emissions
Yang, Y., Smith, S. J., Wang, H., Mills, C. M., & Rasch, P. J. (2019) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-19-2405-2019 · Cited by 70
Schulz, H., Zanatta, M., Bozem, H., Leaitch, W. R., Herber, A., Burkart, J., Willis, M. D., Kunkel, D., Hoor, P. M., Abbatt, J. P. D., et al. (2019) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-19-2361-2019 · Cited by 74
Elemental carbon measurements in European Arctic snow packs
Forsström, S., Isaksson, E., Skeie, R. B., Ström, J., Pedersen, C. A., Hudson, S. R., Berntsen, T. K., Lihavainen, H., Godtliebsen, F., & Gerland, S. (2013) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/2013jd019886 · Cited by 69
East Siberian Arctic background and black carbon polluted aerosols at HMO Tiksi
Popovicheva, O., Diapouli, E., Makshtas, A., Shonija, N. K., Manousakas, M. I., Saraga, D. E., Uttal, T., & Eleftheriadis, K. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.165 · Cited by 65
Aliabadi, A. A., Staebler, R. M., & Sharma, S. (2015) · Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics · doi:10.5194/acp-15-2651-2015 · Cited by 66
Vertical profiling of aerosol particles and trace gases over the central Arctic Ocean during summer
Kupiszewski, P., Leck, C., Tjernström, M., Sjögren, S., Sedlar, J., Graus, M., Müller, M., Brooks, B., Swietlicki, E., Norris, S. J., et al. (2013) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-13-12405-2013 · Cited by 66
Black carbon concentrations and mixing state in the Finnish Arctic
Raatikainen, T., Brus, D., Hyvärinen, A., Svensson, J., Asmi, E., & Lihavainen, H. (2015) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-15-10057-2015 · Cited by 68
Shevchenko, V. P., Сергеевич, П. О., Vorobyev, S. N., Krickov, I. V., Мратович, М. Р., Политова, Н. В., Геннадьевич, К. С., Dara, O. M., Auda, Y., Shirokova, L. S., et al. (2017) · Hydrology and earth system sciences · doi:10.5194/hess-21-5725-2017 · Cited by 66
Self-citationMikhailov, E. F., Mironova, S. Y., Mironov, G. N., Vlasenko, S. S., Panov, A. V., Chi, X., Walter, D., Carbone, S., Artaxo, P. E., Heimann, M., et al. (2017) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-17-14365-2017 · Cited by 65
Tagged tracer simulations of black carbon in the Arctic: transport, source contributions, and budget
Ikeda, K., Tanimoto, H., Sugita, T., Akiyoshi, H., Kanaya, Y., Zhu, C., & Taketani, F. (2017) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-17-10515-2017 · Cited by 67
Bozem, H., Hoor, P. M., Kunkel, D., Köllner, F., Schneider, J., Herber, A., Schulz, H., Leaitch, W. R., Aliabadi, A. A., Willis, M. D., et al. (2019) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-19-15049-2019 · Cited by 78
Barrett, T. E., Robinson, E. M., Usenko, S., & Sheesley, R. J. (2015) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b03081 · Cited by 66
Eckhardt, S., Cassiani, M., Evangeliou, N., Sollum, E., Pisso, I., & Stohl, A. (2017) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-10-4605-2017 · Cited by 64
Self-citationSchacht, J., Heinold, B., Quaas, J., Backman, J., Cherian, R., Ehrlich, A., Herber, A., Huang, W. T. K., Kondo, Y., Maßling, A., et al. (2019) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-19-11159-2019 · Cited by 65
Black Carbon Emissions from the Bakken Oil and Gas Development Region
Schwarz, J. P., Holloway, J. S., Katich, J. M., McKeen, S. A., Kort, E. A., Smith, M. L., Ryerson, T. B., Sweeney, C., & Peischl, J. (2015) · Environmental Science & Technology Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.estlett.5b00225 · Cited by 63
Organic functional groups in the submicron aerosol at 82.5° N, 62.5° W from 2012 to 2014
Leaitch, W. R., Russell, L. M., Liu, J., Kolonjari, F., Toom, D., Huang, L., Sharma, S., Chivulescu, A., Veber, D., & Zhang, W. (2018) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-18-3269-2018 · Cited by 67
Roiger, A., Thomas, J. L., Schlager, H., Law, K. S., Kim, J., Schäfler, A., Weinzierl, B., Dahlkötter, F., Krisch, I., Marelle, L., et al. (2014) · Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society · doi:10.1175/bams-d-13-00169.1 · Cited by 60
A global gas flaring black carbon emission rate dataset from 1994 to 2012
Huang, K., & Fu, J. S. (2016) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/sdata.2016.104 · Cited by 59
Winiger, P., Andersson, A., Yttri, K. E., Tunved, P., & Gustafsson, Ö. (2015) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b02644 · Cited by 60
Marelle, L., Raut, J., Law, K. S., Berg, L. K., Fast, J. D., Easter, R. C., Shrivastava, M., & Thomas, J. L. (2017) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-10-3661-2017 · Cited by 63
Sources of springtime surface black carbon in the Arctic: an adjoint analysis for April 2008
Qi, L., Li, Q., Henze, D. K., Tseng, H.-L. R., & He, C. (2017) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-17-9697-2017 · Cited by 56
Liu, M., & Matsui, H. (2021) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1029/2020jd033890 · Cited by 55
Factors controlling black carbon distribution in the Arctic
Qi, L., Li, Q., Li, Y., & He, C. (2017) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-17-1037-2017 · Cited by 57
Gilgen, A., Huang, W. T. K., Ickes, L., Neubauer, D., & Lohmann, U. (2018) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-18-10521-2018 · Cited by 55
Willis, M. D., Bozem, H., Kunkel, D., Lee, A. K. Y., Schulz, H., Burkart, J., Aliabadi, A. A., Herber, A., Leaitch, W. R., & Abbatt, J. P. D. (2019) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-19-57-2019 · Cited by 62
The importance of Asia as a source of black carbon to the European Arctic during springtime 2013
Liu, D., Quennehen, B., Darbyshire, E., Allan, J. D., Williams, P. I., Taylor, J. W., Bauguitte, S. J.-B., Flynn, M. J., Lowe, D., Gallagher, M. W., et al. (2015) · Atmospheric chemistry and physics · doi:10.5194/acp-15-11537-2015 · Cited by 58
Ecological and conceptual consequences of Arctic pollution
Kirdyanov, A. V., Krusic, P. J., Shishov, V. V., Vaganov, E. A., Fertikov, A. I., Myglan, V. S., Barinov, V. V., Browse, J., Esper, J., Ilyin, V. A., et al. (2020) · Ecology Letters · doi:10.1111/ele.13611 · Cited by 60
“Transport from lower latitude Asia and Eurasia increases their content in the upper atmosphere, whereas local emissions of aerosols substantially affect the transparency of the atmosphere and the formation and structure of clouds (Stohl et al., 2013; Zhao and Garrett, 2015).”
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Self-citationRoiger, A., Thomas, J. L., Schlager, H., Law, K. S., Kim, J., Schäfler, A., Weinzierl, B., Dahlkötter, F., Krisch, I., Marelle, L., et al. (2014) · Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society · doi:10.1175/bams-d-13-00169.1.2016.1.test · Cited by 78
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Characterization of humic‐like substances in Arctic aerosols
Nguyen, Q., Kristensen, T. B., Hansen, A. M. K., Skov, H., Bossi, R., Maßling, A., Sørensen, L. L., Bilde, M., Glasius, M., & Nøjgaard, J. K. (2014) · Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres · doi:10.1002/2013jd020144 · Cited by 51
Biogenic and anthropogenic sources of aerosols at the High Arctic site Villum Research Station
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Morphology and size of soot from gas flares as a function of fuel and water addition
Trivanovic, U., Sipkens, T. A., Kazemimanesh, M., Baldelli, A., Jefferson, A. M., Conrad, B., Johnson, M. R., Corbin, J. C., Olfert, J. S., & Rogak, S. N. (2020) · Fuel · doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2020.118478 · Cited by 51
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Black carbon emissions in Russia: A critical review
Evans, M., Kholod, N., Kuklinski, T., Denysenko, A., Smith, S. J., Staniszewski, A., Hao, W. M., Liu, L., & Bond, T. C. (2017) · Atmospheric Environment · doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2017.05.026 · Cited by 50
Metadata
- Authors
- Stohl, A., Klimont, Z., Eckhardt, S., Kupiainen, K., Shevchenko, V. P., Kopeikin, V. M., & Novigatsky, A. N.
- Affiliations
- NILU (NO)
- International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (AT)
- Russian Academy of Sciences (RU)
- Venue
- Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics
- Publisher
- Copernicus GmbH
- Published
- 2013-09-05
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 17
- Pages
- 8833-8855
- ISSN
- 1680-7316 (ISSN-L)
- 1680-7324
- OpenAlex
- W2023409911
- Cited by
- 383
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 39 · 2018: 32 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 4
- FWCI
- 18.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Atmospheric chemistry and physics (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- IIASA PURE (International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- BIBSYS Brage (BIBSYS (Norway)) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- European Commission (282688)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Atmospheric Science › Atmospheric chemistry and aerosols
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Atmospheric aerosols and clouds
- Keywords
- black carbon, Arctic haze, gas flaring, domestic combustion, emission inventory, heating degree days, seasonal variation, pollution plumes, Zeppelin Observatory, Lagrangian dispersion modeling, FLEXPART, carbon monoxide, biomass burning
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