The DOI matches its Crossref record; 171 of the 171 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 22 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Toward a Theory of Paradox: A Dynamic equilibrium Model of Organizing
Abstract
As organizational environments become more global, dynamic, and competitive, contradictory demands intensify. To understand and explain such tensions, academics and practitioners are increasingly adopting a paradox lens. We review the paradox literature, categorizing types and highlighting fundamental debates. We then present a dynamic equilibrium model of organizing, which depicts how cyclical responses to paradoxical tensions enable sustainability—peak performance in the present that enables success in the future. This review and the model provide the foundation of a theory of paradox.
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In the paper
“Even αs research adopting α paradox perspective has expanded dramatically, this review highlights the lack of conceptual and theoretical coherence.”
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In the paper
“Moreover, α number of organizational fields refer to simultaneously attending to contradictory tensions without using the term paradox.”
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In the paper
“The number of these articles grew at an average rate of 10 percent per year.”
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In the paper
“Within our sample we found 360 articles focused on organizational paradox.”
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In the paper
“Complexity and plurality drive belonging paradoxes, or tensions of identity.”
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In the paper
“Moreover, the same tensions can exist across each of these levels.”
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“As organizational environments become more global, dynamic, and competitive, contradictory demands intensify.”
- Also stated in: another passage · plain
“As environments become more global, fast paced, and competitive, and as internal organizational processes become more complex, such contradictory demands become increasingly salient and persistent (Lewis, 2000).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lewis, 2000
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In the paper
“By defining how they are going to operate, they define how they are not going to operate. Doing so creates organizing tensions, such as loosely coupled versus tightly coupled, centralized versus decentralized, and flexible versus controlling.”
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In the paper
“Responding to questions about who is going to do what highlights conflicting identities, roles, and values, creating belonging tensions.”
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In the paper
“Furthermore, paradoxical tensions may be nested, cascading across levels, as the experience at one level creates new challenges at another.”
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In the paper
“Yet, even so, insights from α paradox perspective are limited by fundamental debates about the nature and management of paradoxical tensions.”
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In the paper
“A second challenge in the literature stems from an ontological debate that differentiates paradoxical tensions either as an inherent feature of α system or as social constructions that emerge from actors' cognition and rhetoric.”
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In the paper
“We found that scholars have increasingly adopted α paradox perspective, with accumulating studies spanning organizational phenomenα and levels of analysis.”
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In the paper
“Advocated responses to paradox diverge between acceptance and resolution strategies.”
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In the paper
“To be more specific, debates swirl around the conceptualization of paradox, the ontological nature of paradoxical tensions, and strategies to respond to these tensions.”
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In the paper
“The lack of conceptual clarity in this field is evident in the varying language adopted to describe tensions, including “paradox,” “dilemma,” dichotomy,” and “dialectic.””
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In the paper
“The four categories of paradox represent core activities and elements of organizations: learning (knowledge), belonging (identity/interpersonal relationships), organizing (processes), and performing (goals).”
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In the paper
“The system maintains equilibrium by adapting to α continuous pull in opposing directions.”
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- The authors state this as an assumption: Dynamic equilibrium assumes constant motion across opposing forces.
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In the paper
“Although choosing among competing tensions might aid short-term performance, α paradox perspective argues that long-term sustainability requires continuous efforts to meet multiple, divergent demands (Cameron, 1986; Lewis, 2000).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cameron, 1986
- Not checked yetcites Lewis, 2000
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In the paper
“This ontological disparity fractures the literature and has implications for strategies to manage paradox through acceptance or resolution, another debate.”
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In the paper
“In this frequently used typology, the first strategy focuses on acceptance, whereas the last three seek to resolve the underlying tensions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Poole and Van de Ven, 1989
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In the paper
“Organizing paradoxes surface as complex systems create competing designs and processes to achieve α desired outcome.”
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In the paper
“Leaders' responses to these tensions mαy be α fundamental determinant of an organization's fate (Quinn, 1988).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Quinn, 1988
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In the paper
“Performing paradoxes stem from the plurality of stakeholders and result in competing strategies and goals.”
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In the paper
“Living with paradox implies that actors shift their expectations for rationality and linearity to accept paradoxes as persistent and unsolvable puzzles.”
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In the paper
“By defining what they are trying to do, the leaders define what they are not trying to do, highlighting goals and strategies and creating performing tensions, such as global versus local and socially focused versus financially focused.”
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In the paper
“Tensions operate between as well as within these categories.”
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In the paper
“Others, however, stress that acceptance is α powerful, proactive strategy, reducing defensiveness to unleash enhanced performance (Cameron, 1986).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cameron, 1986
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Researchers have explored paradoxical tensions as either inherent—existing within the system—or socially constructed—created by actors' cognition or rhetoric. We propose that they are both.”
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In the paper
“The metaphor of dynamic equilibrium highlights the model's key features—the persistence of conflicting forces and purposeful, cyclical responses over time that enable sustainability.”
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- The authors state this as an assumption: Dynamic equilibrium assumes constant motion across opposing forces.
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In the paper
“That is, opposing yet interrelated dualities are embedded in the process of organizing and are brought into juxtaposition viα environmental conditions.”
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In the paper
“Learning paradoxes surface as dynamic systems change, renew, and innovate.”
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In the paper
“Although choosing among competing tensions might aid short-term performance, α paradox perspective argues that long-term sustainability requires continuous efforts to meet multiple, divergent demands (Cameron, 1986; Lewis, 2000).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cameron, 1986
- Not checked yetcites Lewis, 2000
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In the paper
“More specifically, α dynamic equilibrium enables sustainability through three mechanisms: (1) enabling learning and creativity, (2) fostering flexibility and resilience, and (3) unleashing human potential.”
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In the paper
“Acceptance provides α comfort with tensions that enables more complex and challenging resolution strategies.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
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In the paper
“Yet even as virtuous cycles can reinforce underlying tensions, achieving benefits from those tensions is not easy. The threat of vicious cycles persists, requiring managers to remain vigilant as they iterate between acceptance and paradoxical resolution strategies.”
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In the paper
“Doing so involves consistent inconsistency as managers frequently and dynamically shift decisions. Actors therefore make choices in the short term while remaining acutely aware of accepting contradiction in the long term.”
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In the paper
“Paradox theory offers α frame to help neoinstitutional theorists explore the tensions of multiple logics (Kraatz & Block, 2008).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kraatz & Block, 2008
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In the paper
“While actors construct organizations, doing so inherently surfaces material paradoxical tensions.”
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In the paper
“As such, paradoxes reflect both inherent features of organizations and the agency that created and continues to reproduce those systems.”
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In the paper
“Dynamic capabilities provide collective tools to enable organizational leaders to respond to environmental shifts and, in doing so, enable members to be more open and accepting of the dynamic environment of paradoxical tensions.”
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In the paper
“Taken together, plurality, change, and scarcity challenge our bounded rαtionality and stress systems. As α result, individuals are more prone to break apart interwoven elements into either/or decisions, practices, and understanding, blurring their interrelatedness.”
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In the paper
“Individuals mαy also react by choosing one agenda, altering their beliefs or actions to enable α consistent response (Cialdini et αl., 1995) or maintaining an often mindless commitment to previous behaviors in order to enable consistency between the past and the future (Weick, 1993).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cialdini et al., 1995
- Not checked yetcites Weick, 1993
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In the paper
“By defining A we create α broad category of not A.”
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In the paper
“Providing α unifying platform can spur continued theoretical debate and guide future empirical research.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Without an integrating theory, studies attending to simultaneous opposites coexist across theoretical and phenomenological domains without interacting with one another.
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In the paper
“Juxtaposing opposing forces may create the context for leaders to engage in creative problem solving, allowing their organizations to continuously improve.”
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In the paper
“Once rendered salient, paradoxical tensions spur responses. According to paradox studies, responses fuel reinforcing cycles that can be negative or positive (Lewis, 2000).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lewis, 2000
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Paradox studies demonstrate the value of alternative tools, such as case studies (Andriopoulos & Lewis, 2009), action research (Beech et al., 2004), systems αpproaches (Sterman, 2000), and agent-based models (Axelrod, 1997), for enabling more nuαnced insights.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Andriopoulos & Lewis, 2009
- Not checked yetcites Beech et al., 2004
- Not checked yetcites Sterman, 2000
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In the paper
“Paradox theory not only proposes that contradictory theories exist but offers α process for academics to start enriching and renewing our stock of organizational theories.”
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In the paper
“Today, as globalization, innovation, hypercompetition, and social demands create more dynamic and intricate environments, paradox becomes α critical theoretical lens to understand and to lead contemporary organizations.”
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- Rests on an assumption: Globalization, innovation, hypercompetition, and social demands create more dynamic and intricate environments.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, α paradox theory offers opportunities for enriching organizational theorizing.”
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In the paper
“Attending to paradox and building supportive capabilities enable orgαnizing to become α fluid, reflective, and sustainable process.”
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such α theory not only offers α response to organizational tensions but encourages active șearching for and surfacing of those tensions to enhance creativity and performance.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such α theory not only offers α response to organizational tensions but encourages active șearching for and surfacing of those tensions to enhance creativity and performance.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Tensions forged through the act of organizing are not merely distinct from one another but are also oppositional and relational (Seo et al., 2004).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Seo et al., 2004
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As with contingency theory, α theory of parαdox provides α metatheoretical perspective that can provide guidance on how other theories ask questions and explore insights.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: Without an integrating theory, studies attending to simultaneous opposites coexist across theoretical and phenomenological domains without interacting with one another.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Paradox theory not only proposes that contradictory theories exist but offers α process for academics to start enriching and renewing our stock of organizational theories.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A dynamic equilibrium creates α virtuous cycle.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The dynamic equilibrium model proposes α managerial approach to paradox involving complementary and interwoven strategies of acceptance and resolution.”
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In the paper
“Finally, as leaders consider the time horizon for their actions, they face learning tensions between today and tomorrow or between looking forward and looking backward.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Dynamic equilibrium assumes constant motion across opposing forces.
“Dynamic equilibrium, in contrast, assumes constant motion across opposing forces.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Tensions persist within complex and dynamic systems.
“But in contrast to contingency theory, α paradox perspective assumes that tensions persist within complex and dynamic systems.”
“At its core α paradox theory presumes that tensions are integral to complex systems and that sustainability depends on attending to contradictory yet interwoven demands simultaneously.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Sustainability depends on attending to contradictory yet interwoven demands simultaneously.
“At its core α paradox theory presumes that tensions are integral to complex systems and that sustainability depends on attending to contradictory yet interwoven demands simultaneously.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Globalization, innovation, hypercompetition, and social demands create more dynamic and intricate environments.
“Today, as globalization, innovation, hypercompetition, and social demands create more dynamic and intricate environments, paradox becomes α critical theoretical lens to understand and to lead contemporary organizations.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Without an integrating theory, studies attending to simultaneous opposites coexist across theoretical and phenomenological domains without interacting with one another.
“Minus an integrating theory, studies attending to simultaneous opposites coexist across theoretical and phenomenological domains without interacting with one another.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Research on hybrid identities, multiple logics, ambidexterity, and work/family integration all draw from a similar assumption about the simultaneous coexistence of competing alternatives.
“Research on hybrid identities, multiple logics, ambidexterity, and work/family integration all draw from α similar assumption about the simultaneous coexistence of competing alternatives and yet could more effectively inform one another about the management of tensions.”
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“While such a transition relaxes the tension temporarily, the issue resurfaces when conditions change over time (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Paradox theory, however, warns that such a narrow trade-off perspective does not adequately represent reality (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“While such differentiation allows for engaging in both automation and augmentation, integration enables the finding of linkages that transcend the two poles (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“While acceptance lays the groundwork for virtuous cycles, it has to be complemented with a subsequent resolution strategy (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Paradox theory suggests that managing tensions through the dynamic strategies of acceptance and resolution fosters sustainability (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“According to paradox theory, these organizational responses fuel reinforcing cycles that can be either negative or positive (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Organizations facing such a salient tension tend to apply management strategies to address it.”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“A first step toward enabling such a virtuous cycle is the acceptance of the tensions as paradoxical (Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Tensions' systemic nature is a central tenet of paradox theorizing (Jarzabkowski, Bednarek, Chalkias, & Cacciatori, 2019;Smith & Lewis, 2011).”
From Artificial Intelligence and Management: The Automation–Augmentation Paradox (2021) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“paradoxes arise when two opposing elements are fundamentally linked to each other and coexist”
From Content Creators Between Platform Control and User Autonomy: The Role of Algorithms and Revenue Sharing (2023) · cites this paper as Smith and Lewis 2011
In the citing paper
“Much is known about existing paradoxes but not about their origin and inception; hence, we ask: how do entrepreneurial paradoxes emerge -in this case from the combination of work and play - and how are they navigated over time?”
From From a Hobby to a Business: Drifting through Paradox While the Business Accelerates (2024) · cites this paper as Smith & Lewis, 2011
In the citing paper
“Paradoxical thinking requires a firm to have the cultures, structures, and processes to seek and integrate conflicting information (Smith and Lewis 2011).”
From Stakeholder marketing: theoretical foundations and required capabilities (2015) · cites this paper as Smith and Lewis 2011
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Clegg citation points outside the listed page range
MinorThe quotation is attributed to page 29 of Clegg (2002), but the reference list gives that work a page range of 1-10.
“Clegg proposed that paradoxes and dialectics become synonymous when "α thesis does not exist despite its antithesis, but because of it. Each pole of the dialectic needs the other to sustain its presence" (2002: 29).”
“Clegg, S. R. 2002. General introduction. In S. R. Clegg (Ed.), Management and organization paradoxes: 1–10.”
Fayol's year differs between Table 1 and the reference list
MinorTable 1 identifies Fayol's cited work as 1911, whereas both the reference list and a citation in the text identify Fayol as 1990.
“Foundational research | Fayol (1911), Taylor (1911)”
“Fayol, H. 1990. General principles of manαgement.”
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Tung, R. L. (2014) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051814549249 · Cited by 33
Mulder, F. (2023) · Journal of International Humanitarian Action · doi:10.1186/s41018-023-00139-0 · Cited by 38
Metadata
- Authors
- Smith, W. K., & Lewis, M. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Cincinnati (US)
- Venue
- Academy of Management Review
- Publisher
- Academy of Management
- Published
- 2011-04
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 381-403
- ISSN
- 0363-7425 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-3807
- OpenAlex
- W4231788326
- Cited by
- 1,631
- References
- 140
- Citations by year
- 2026: 242 · 2025: 316 · 2024: 184 · 2023: 163 · 2022: 134 · 2021: 127 · 2020: 77 · 2019: 97 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 78 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 33.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Academy of Management Review (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Management and Organizational Studies
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Innovation and Knowledge Management
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Management of Technology and Innovation › Organizational Management and Leadership
- Keywords
- paradox, paradoxical tensions, dynamic equilibrium model, organizing, organizational sustainability, peak performance
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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