The behavior and ecology of Pacific salmon and trout

“The developmental stage, condition, and timing of 578 emergence influence the survival of fry upon emergence (Quinn 2005).”

“Throughout their evolutionary history salmon have been highly successful in adapting to changing conditions, and diversifying to take advantage of suitable habitat [42].”

“The semelparous life history of sockeye salmon involves a delicate balance of resource allocation, the importance of which is highlighted during their final migration to natal freshwater rivers to spawn (Fleming and Gross, 1989; Quinn, 2005; Hinch et al., 2006).”

“Lack of connectivity with the floodplain can exacerbate the effect of high-discharge events with regard to displacement (Bjornn and Reiser 1991; Quinn 2005).”

“The decision to migrate, or not, between or within populations is a function of the fitness benefits of each alternative, which can be defined as “the summation of an individuals probability of surviving to reproduce at any age multiplied by its fecundity and breeding success at that age” (Gross 1987; Quinn 2005).”

“This pattern could be explained either by 3-ocean sockeye salmon arriving earlier to the fishery (Quinn 2005) or by fishing late in the season that preferentially selects 3-ocean fish (Kendall and Quinn 2009).”

“…by leveraging a priori knowledge that these three age classes are often present in juvenile salmonid habitats, especially in the case of steelhead (Quinn, 2018), and will create three different length distributions after accounting for various covariates (i.e., day of year, tributary, or year).”

“Quinn TP. 2005.”

“Olfaction is a sensory modality underpinning various natural behaviours in fishes, such as feeding, reproduction, social communication, predator avoidance, and navigation (Hara 1982; Hueter et al. 2004; Kasumyan 2004; Collin 2007, 2012; Rooker et al. 2008; Gardiner et al. 2012‚ 2015; Collin et al. 2015; Nosal et al. 2…”

“, ecological, socioeconomic, recreational, commercial, cultural, nutritional) throughout the world (Lynch et al., 2002; Quinn, 2005; Prosek, 2013).”

“…provide an excellent system for investigating the genetic basis of local adaptation be‐ cause they exhibit strong natal philopatry; this philopatry to diverse habitats promotes fine‐scale adaptive divergence and has led to a remarkable number of unique phenotypes and life histories (Quinn, 2005).”

“Migratory phenotypes of juvenile Pacific salmonids vary widely (Quinn, 2005).”

“Furthermore, these minor haplotypes might have distributed rapidly and easily among salmonids in neighboring rivers and/or areas, because pink salmon are thought to have a relatively low rate of homing migration yet a high rate of straying from streams (Quinn 1993, 2005).”

“ocean for two years, before returning to the rivers to spawn (Quinn 2005).”

“The selection of a certain life strategy in fish is accompanied by changes in biochemical processes, cytomorphological parameters, and behavior (Jonston and Eales, 1967; Hoar, 1976; McCormic and Saunders, 1987; Kazakov and Veselov, 1998; Pustovit, N.S. and Pustovit, O.P.,, 2005; Quinn, 2005).”

“Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) is an anadromous species naturally distributed throughout the North Pacific Ocean that spawns in most coastal rivers of western North America north of San Francisco, California (Quinn, 2004).”

“In contrast, male salmon increase their fitness by successfully locating additional mates as they become receptive (Esteve 2005; Quinn 2005; Anderson and Quinn 2007).”

“tshawytscha reproduction is likely as the host’s return to freshwater is marked with spawning followed by mortality (Quinn, 2004).”

“(Gharrett & Thomason, 1987; Kwain & Lawrie, 1981; Quinn, 2018).”

“Hostetter et al. (2012) noted prey size selectivity by Caspian terns, with larger smolts depredated at higher rates than smaller smolts; juvenile steelhead are, on average, larger than other juvenile salmonids (Quinn 2005).”

“2011), although they risk nest 414 destruction by later arriving females (redd superimposition) (Hendry et al. 2004; Quinn 2011).”

“This assumed type of return migration to natal rivers by Chinook salmon is thought to reflect intense foraging behaviors on the homeward migration (Quinn 2005).”

“Due to their philopatric life history, anadromous salmonids typically exhibit fine‐ scale local adaptation to their natal habitats (Quinn, 2005).”

“…summer and another full year in marine waters before returning to spawn in the fall of the following year (i.e., after about 18 months in marine waters), though a fraction of the males, known as jacks, mature in the fall of the year in which they entered marine waters (Sandercock 1991; Quinn 2005).”

“300 mm) would produce on the order of 1000 eggs (depending on egg size – number trade-offs) and this might not be enough for replacement, given the sources of natural and anthropogenic mortality to which the offspring are subjected (Quinn 2005).”

“Coho Salmon typically spawn in streams during late fall and early winter; fry emerge in spring, reside in freshwater for a full year (or 2 years in environments that are less conducive to growth), and then migrate to the sea as smolts in spring (Sandercock 1991; Weitkamp et al. 1995; Quinn 2005).”

“Downstream migration speed in rivers can be influenced by water speed, date, location where fish commence migration, fish size, and extent of parr–smolt transformation [13, 14].”

“In salmonids, local adaptation is facilitated by high levels of natal philopatry and population subdivision that occurs across a landscape of variable environments (Quinn 2005).”

“Homing behaviour increases reproductive success and survival during early life-history stages by ensuring habitat and mate suitability [36,37].”

“Given this, pink salmon and chum salmon, which we identified as highly vulnerable based on habitat overlap, may be less affected because they migrate directly to sea upon emergence [74].”

“…salmon have very complex life histories (Thorstad, Whoriskey, Rikardsen, & Aarestrup, 2011) compared to most Pacific salmonids (but not O. mykiss, Quinn, 2005), caution is required in using North American beaver literature when considering potential Eurasian beaver effects on Atlantic salmon and…”

“Homing is a highly adaptive feature that enhances salmon fittness, because, the return of adult fish to the natal site for spawning makes it possible to find mates and to locate in habitats favorable for reproduction and survival of juveniles (Quinn, 1993, 2005).”

“…lampreys have many of the same habitat requirements as spawning adult and parr salmonids, respectively, in freshwater ecosystems (Close et al., 2002; Quinn, 2005; Renaud, 2011), native lampreys have received little management or research attention (Mesa & Copeland, 2009; Renaud et al., 2009a).”

“…author: marosteg@uw.edu Received June 24, 2016; accepted October 4, 2016 1 these species also display a wide range of migratory patterns, including nonanadromous populations and nonanadromous individuals within largely anadromous populations (reviewed by Quinn 2005; Jonsson and Jonsson 2011).”

“The sockeye salmon – kokanee complex does not have an evolutionary history of piscivory with the convergent functional morphologies and behaviors that are typically associated with this feeding strategy; however, a piscivorous life history is common in other salmonids (Burgner 1991; Kaeriyama et al. 2000; Karpenko et…”

“kisutch, because Coho Salmon typically spend ∼12 months in streams prior to seaward migration (Quinn 2005) and use similar habitats to those occupied by juvenile Cutthroat Trout (Bisson et al.”

“Resident fish that volitionally residualize may have less growth opportunity but earlier maturation and higher survival (Quinn 2005).”

“However, Chinook salmon typically have nearly twice the fecundity (5,401 eggs/female) and a considerably larger egg size (300 mg/egg) than coho salmon (2,878 eggs/female and 220 mg/egg; Quinn 2005).”

“Pacific salmon are anadromous and amass 99% of their body size in the ocean (Quinn, 2005).”

“We also assumed that return timing for salmon in this study was concentrated within a single year, although individuals from the same cohort, particularly for Chinook salmon, return between 2 to 6 years after ocean entry [66, 101].”

“Further, the strongest values of selection on size that we observed were for age-0 smolts, which have the lowest estimated marine survival, often lower than 1% (Quinn, 2018).”

“Migratory adult trout are much larger than resident trout, reaching >700 mm on average (Quinn 2005), while the largest resident trout we observed in our study streams was 265 mm.”

“Specifically, differences in symmetry between wild and hatchery-origin Chinook Salmon are consistent with differences in rearing conditions and environments from known origin wild populations (North Oregon Coast and Mid Oregon Coast—Wild) and hatchery populations (Alaska, Mid Oregon Coast—Hatchery, and Willamette).”

“Evolution may produce more bet- hedging in migration strategies than has been emphasized in ecology in general (Schindler, Armstrong, & Reed, 2015) or has been emphasized in the conventional wisdom of salmon ecology that tends to focus on the micro evolution of local optima (Quinn, 2005).”

“Chinook demonstrate high levels of local adaptation (Quinn 2005), however, many populations, including the Chena River population”

“This is well documented in sockeye salmon (O. nerka), for example (Newell and Quinn 2005).”

“Likewise we assume that, as salmonids these fish exhibit strong philopatry and habitat selection (Taylor 1991; Quinn 2005).”

“Relationships between salmonid ecology and climate also depend on biotic sources of variation, especially intraspecific competition that can limit the size, age structure, and recruitment of salmon populations (e.g., Groot and Margolis 1991; Quinn 2005; Mangel and Satterthwaite 2008).”

“gorbuscha (Healey 1991; Sandercock 1991; Quinn 2005; Quinn and Myers 2005).”

“Local conditions in nearshore marine environments experienced during the early ocean time period are critical and likely one of the greatest determinants of marine survival of juvenile salmonids [19,26-29].”

“[3] Pacific salmon have been introduced via fisheries management throughout the world, including in the Laurentian Great Lakes, New Zealand, and Chile [Crawford, 2001;Quinn, 2005].”

“Extended migration times due to low flow conditions may result in pre-spawnmortalities (Quinn, 2005).”

“The first few months after juvenile Pacific salmon enter the sea results in mass mortality, so it is one of the most influential life stages [8–12].”

“This might be expected to be critical for salmon that enter the ocean at smaller sizes than others, such as Pink Oncorhynchus gorbuscha and Chum salmon O. keta , which enter the marine environment shortly after emerging as fry (ca. 0.5 g; 3,4 ).”

“1991; Quinn 2018).”

“The emerged juveniles are saltwater tolerant smolts that migrate downriver to the estuary and coastal waters, usually only a few days or weeks after hatching (Heard, 1991; Quinn, 2005).”

“Pacific salmon and trout home to their natal streams and lakes, and this results in structured populations that are locally adapted to particular environments (Brannon et al., 2004; Hendry et al., 2004a; Quinn, 2005; Waples et al., 2001, 2008).”