The behavior and ecology of Pacific salmon and trout

“The average full strength oceanic salinity that Pacific salmon typically encounter is about 32–33 ppth (Quinn 2005).”

“The anadromous life history and associated seaward migration exhibited by salmon provide an opportunity for the juvenile fish to escape from the relatively sterile habitats of their natal streams in favor of more productive conditions in the marine environment where food is more readily available [7].”

“Our fixed survival estimates are comparable with values for coho salmon found in the literature (Table 3; Bradford, 1995; Quinn, 2005; Shaul et al., 2008).”

“This result may be attributed to a higher propensity for natal homing in river spawning fishes, a phenomenon that quite prevalent in salmonids (Dittman and Quinn 1996; Quinn 2005; Neville et al. 2006).”

“Similar studies have not been conducted for Pacific salmon, but the incredible diversity of habitats supporting Chinook salmon populations (Quinn 2005) suggests that similar adaptive variation for age at maturity exists within this species.”

“Because olfaction is an important modality in stickleback perception (McLennan, 2003; Kozak et al., 2009), olfactory signals may also play a role in habitat choice of sticklebacks like in anadromous salmonids (e.g. Quinn, 2005).”

“The dominant salmon on Prince of Wales Island are pink (O. gorbuscha) and chum (O. keta) salmon, which migrate and spaw0n during a 6- to 8-week period from August to October and then die after spawning (Quinn 2005).”

“Although highly variable among species, events related to phenology have been linked to patterns of climate (e.g., Flitcroft et al. 2016) that are necessary for spawning and successful juvenile rearing (Quinn et al. 1997; Quinn 2005; Sykes et al. 2009).”

“A range of environmental variables shape the contemporary evolution of anadromous migratory behavior in fishes (Table 1; Hendry et al., 2004; Quinn, 2005; Quinn & Myers, 2005).”

“Freshwater and anadromous salmonid fishes also exhibit a diverse array of life-history traits, migration strategies, and population demographics (Quinn 2005), all of which also have important implications for population structure, management, and conservation (Hendry and Stearns 2004).”

“Steelhead exhibit high rates of natal philopatry (Shapovalov and Taft 1954; Quinn 2005), so it is unlikely that the baseline contained a high proportion of immigrants from unsampled populations.”

“97L/s, which is consistent with previous researcher’s estimation [22].”

“prey selection, kin identification, homing, and mate selection (Cooper et al., 1976; Dittman and Quinn, 1996; Hara, 1992; Quinn, 2011; Tierney et al., 2010; Sutterlin and Gray, 1973).”

“Specifically, summer flows in tributary systems are crucial for juvenile salmonid spawning and rearing (Quinn 2011) and the migratory nature of the salmonid life cycles necessitate sufficient flow in stream reaches linking streams of crucial habitat (Fullerton et al. 2010).”

“Further, sea-run salmonids bring terrestrial and freshwater subsidies to estuaries and oceans, linking nutrients and energy derived from the forest to the sea, and return ocean-derived nutrients to terrestrial systems via their spawning migrations (Quinn 2005).”

“We separated salmonid prey into 2 categories (adults and juveniles) because juvenile sal - monid feeding ecology and diet are distinct from adult conspecifics (Quinn 2011).”

“…than the suitable diameter was not disturbed by spawners; larger particles cannot be effectively mobilised, whereas salmon frequently avoid smaller particles as they are easily scoured by flows and/or may not allow adequate water circulation through the egg pocket during incubation (Quinn, 2005).”

“Given this life history strategy, future comparative synthesis, might consider comparisons with sockeye salmon and kokanee (Oncorhynchus nerka) which have similar freshwater habitat obligations (Quinn 2005).”

“Direct estimates of survival during the open ocean phase are not available, but they are presumed to be higher than that for outmigrating smolts and juvenile coastal marine life stages (Quinn 2005).”

“The typical directional pattern consists of migrating upstream to spawning grounds and downstream to winter and forage habitats where there is presumably greater potential for growth [33,34].”

“Female Chinook salmon benefit from complex channel structure upon arrival at the spawning grounds, particularly if they are not yet ready to lay their eggs and so need a holding location until fully ripe (Quinn 2005).”

“As with most salmonids, sockeye salmon (O. nerka) experience the majority of lifetime mortality between the period when eggs are fertilized and buried in the gravel to when juveniles emerge as free-swimming fish (Quinn, 2005).”

“During reproduction, female salmon excavate gravel nests called redds in streambed gravels where fertilized eggs are buried to incubate for a period of several months (Quinn, 2011).”

“The return of spawning salmon to their natal areas is remarkable in its accuracy and in the consistency of its timing (Quinn 2005).”

“Pacific salmon and trout life histories are cued by hydrologic and thermal regimes; and streamflow and temperature conditions during both winter and summer can strongly regulate survival and growth of salmon embryos and juveniles (Quinn, 2005).”

“The salmonidae family, of which brown trout is a member, is renowned for remarkable variation in life history, behavior, and morphology [30–32].”

“Others may residualize remaining in freshwater for their entire lives (Quinn 2005).”

“The physical template of these catchments controlled not only stream velocity and channel morphology, factors viewed as 2 of the most important in governing distributions of macroinvertebrates (Ward 1998) and juvenile salmonids (Quinn 2005), but also the type and amount of wetlands.”

“Direct consumption of eggs and flesh from carcasses can serve as an important pulse of energy to resident and juvenile anadromous fish populations (Quinn, 2005).”

“In contrast, selective pressures in marine habitats have been argued to be weaker since observed mortality rates are lower at sea (Garcia de Leaniz et al., 2007; Quinn, 2005).”

“Spawning fish are thought to select loose substrates because excavating redds in looser gravels requires less energy expenditure by the fish (DeVries, 2012; Merz et al., 2018; Quinn, 2018).”

“Temperature variation does not necessarily affect all life stages equally and the early life history stages are often the most vulnerable because offspring tend to have a low tolerance for temperature variation (Rombough, 1997; Xu & Ji, 2006) and a reduced capacity to behaviorally thermoregulate (Quinn, 2005).”

“Pacific salmonids (Oncorhynchus spp.) are icons of the Pacific Northwest of North America and utilize aquatic environments that are diverse across life stages, populations and species (Quinn, 2005).”

“While there is a great deal of diversity in the timing of aspects of their life history, Chinook salmon juveniles typically migrate to the ocean in spring, presumably to take advantage of the peak in production associated with the onset of coastal upwelling [Quinn, 2005].”

“Anadromous salmonids are renowned for their remarkable diversity in behavior, ecology, morphology, and life history traits among species and among populations within species (Groot and Margolis 1991; Fleming 1998; Waples et al. 2001; Quinn 2005).”

“On the other hand, in salmonid fishes, anadromous adults can exhibit very precise natal homing [37], and most phenotypic traits are heritable [38].”

“Considerable mortality occurs during both freshwater and marine phases of anadromous salmon (Bradford 1995; Quinn 2005), but in general there is considerable evidence that recent declines in the abundance of many populations were largely caused by marine factors resulting in declines of total marine survival rates (Co…”

“Populations of steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss (anadromous Rainbow Trout) are widely distributed along the Pacific coast of North America and extend to the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia (Augerot 2005).”

“Temperature effects on salmonid life history are difficult to predict because they influence numerous aspects of individual physiology and ecology (Groot et al. 1995; Brannon et al. 2004; Quinn 2005).”

“Adult Pacific salmon tend to return to their natal rivers to spawn [34], allowing us to analyse factors affecting chum salmon productivity at the spatial scale of river populations.”

“We used the European aging nomenclature for salmon, in which two numerals (one representing winters in freshwater and the other representing winters in saltwater) are separated by a decimal point; total age is the sum of the two numerals plus the numeral 1 (Quinn 2005).”

“, staging, competition, coitus, and minimal brood defense by females) during a window of opportunity when both sexes are present on the spawning grounds (Quinn, 2005).”

“(i) Stormwater mitigation for coho salmon After spending 1–3 years in the ocean, coho salmon return to freshwater to spawn and rear for 1–2 years in small tributary creeks throughout Puget Sound lowlands [70,71] As described above, coho are acutely sensitive to toxic stormwater runoff when they return from the ocean t…”

“The life cycle can involve both freshwater and marine environments with multiple transitions that must be timed to ensure growth opportunities for current and future life stages (Quinn 2005).”

“Anadromous Pacific salmon spend the majority of their lives in marine ecosystems, where they gain >99% of their mass, before re-entering complex freshwater ecosystems to spawn and die [3].”

“Larger females thus can typically spawn in larger substrates (Quinn 2005).”

“High spawner abundance results in more time on the spawning grounds for both male and female fish, with greater competition for redd sites among females and greater competition for access to females among males (Quinn 2005).”

“, resident rainbow trout) distributed further north (Quinn 2005).”

“2009; Duffy and Beauchamp 2011) and increases reproductive success (Quinn 2005).”

“While these predator–prey interactions are intense, accounting for up to 70% of early marine mortality in pink salmon populations (Parker 1968), they are also short lived, lasting for only the first few months of marine life (i.e. April–July; Groot &Margolis 1991; Quinn 2005).”

“…by guest on 29 July 2018 The interval between these 2 time periods brackets the major physiological transformation during smoltification, which generally concludes with individuals outmigrating between April and early June when they are approximately 18 months old (Quinn 2005).”

“In addition, the minimum distances moved by Chinook Salmon in our study, including the distance from the Swan River to central Lake Michigan (300 km), were comparable to distances of movement reported previously for Chinook Salmon in their native range (Quinn 2005; Weitkamp 2010).”

“04 (Quinn, 2005), although some estimates report juvenile annual survival at 0.”

“Similar to the results of Newell and Quinn (2005), sockeye salmon in our system selected intermediate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .…”

“Th is portfolio eff ect occurs because of asynchrony among populations in this system; even nearby populations are relatively asynchronous in their abundances and productivity (Rogers and Schindler 2008), presumably infl uenced by diff erential responses to local environmental conditions such as rearing lake temperatu…”

“Mature salmonids often exhibit substantial sexual dimorphism in body shape (Quinn 2005); therefore, two-sample t tests were performed to test for sexual dimorphism in standard length, sizeadjusted maximum body depth, and number of gill rakers for each lake.”

“Presumably, these secondary sexual characteristics increase mating success (Quinn 2005), but their effectiveness during night-time is unknown.”

“Most salmon eggs are buried by the female at the completion of spawning (Quinn 2005) and thus surplus eggs are only available when spawning salmon are very abundant.”

“, 2007), 50 the British Isles (Hendry, 2003) and the Pacific Northwest (Bradford and Irvine, 2000; 51 Simenstad and Cordell, 2000; Quinn, 2005; Bisson et al. 2009).”

“Combining these observations with already published egg and alevin development rates (Quinn, 2005), and comparison with typical temperatures in Scottish rivers, indicates that emergence and emigration of fry occurred during late autumn/early winter (unpublished).”

“Subyearling sal-monids (i.e., ocean-type Chinook and chum) spend less time rearing in freshwater and instead migrate earlier and spend longer periods in estuaries (Healey, 1982; Quinn, 2005; Weitkamp et al., 2014).”

“Sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) exhibits ecotypes that differ in migratory behaviour, spawning location, timing of spawning or running, and trophic level or morphology across its PanPacific distribution (Quinn & Quinn, 2005; Wood et al., 2008).”

“Salmon tend to be trophic generalists that feed visually (Figure 2, focus 6) (Quinn, 2005).”

“Females demonstrate strong influence on nest site selection, spawn timing, and early juvenile survival; thus, iteroparity may be particularly important for females (Fleming 1996; Quinn 2005).”