Self-medication with Antibiotics in WHO Southeast Asian Region: A Systematic Review
Open accessAbstract
Antibiotics are essential treatments, especially in the developing world like World Health Organization (WHO) Southeast Asian region where infectious diseases are still the most common cause of death. In this part of the world, antibiotics are purchased and used without the prescription of a physician. Self-medication of antibiotics is associated with the risk of inappropriate drug use, which predisposes patients to drug interactions, masking symptoms of an underlying disease, and development of microbial resistance. Antibiotic resistance is shrinking the range of effective antibiotics and is a global health problem. The appearance of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains, which are highly resistant to many antibiotic classes, has raised a major concern regarding antibiotic resistance worldwide. Even after decades of economic growth and development in countries that belong to the WHO Southeast Asian region, most of the countries in this region still have a high burden of infectious diseases. The magnitude and consequence of self-medication with antibiotics is unknown in this region. There is a need for evidence from well-designed studies on community use of antibiotics in these settings to help in planning and implementing specific strategies and interventions to prevent their irrational use and consequently to reduce the spread of antibiotic resistance. To quantify the frequency and effect of self-medication with antibiotics, we did a systematic review of published work from the Southeast Asian region.
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Among the different channels from which patients in LMICs can access antibiotics, community drug retail outlets are a predominant source of antibiotics for the wider population.
“Among the different channels from which patients in LMICs can access antibiotics, CDROs have been identified to be a predominant source of antibiotics for the wider population [19–22].”
From No prescription? No problem: drivers of non-prescribed sale of antibiotics among community drug retail outlets in low and middle income countries: a systematic review of qualitative studies (2021) · cites this paper as [21]
The Review (page not provided) says pharmacies were the main source of antibiotics used for self-medication, followed by friends and family. That supports retail outlets as a predominant source in the studies reviewed, but the paper concerns self-medication in the WHO Southeast Asian Region, not all antibiotic access among the wider population across LMICs. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredGaurav Nepal et al. reported that 79.6% of pharmacies in Nepal dispensed antibiotics for URI without a prescription.
“This finding aligns with research by Gaurav Nepal et al, which reported that 79.6% of pharmacies in Nepal dispensed antibiotics for URI without a prescription. 17”
From Evaluation of antibiotic dispensing without prescription by community pharmacies: a simulated patient study (2025) · cites this paper as [17]
The Review discusses antibiotic self-medication in Nepal and lists pharmacies as a source of antibiotics in some studies, but it does not report the claimed pharmacy-level finding. Searches for “79.6%” and for dispensing without a prescription for URI found no matching passage in our copy; the precise claim cannot be verified from it. (LLM, conf=0.77)
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Exploring the potential of phytochemicals and nanomaterial: A boon to antimicrobial treatment
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Godman, B., Fadare, J. O., Kwon, H.-Y., Dias, C. Z., Kurdi, A. B., Godói, I. P. D., Kibuule, D., Hoxha, I., Opanga, S. A., Saleem, Z., et al. (2021) · Journal of Comparative Effectiveness Research · doi:10.2217/cer-2020-0273 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Ayosanmi, O. S., Alli, B. Y., Akingbule, O., Alaga, A., Perepelkin, J. P., Delbaere, M., Sansgiry, S. S., & Taylor, J. G. (2022) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics11060808 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Shah, K., Halder, S., & Haider, S. S. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e05976 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Numerous studies have been conducted in Nepal to understand the self-medication practices of general people [10, 12, 13, 14].”
BackgroundBogale, A. A., Amhare, A. F., Chang, J., Bogale, H. A., Betaw, S. T., Gebrehiwot, N. T., & Fang, Y. (2019) · Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy · doi:10.1080/14787210.2019.1620105 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“In addition, studies were conducted in Indonesia and WHO Southeast Asia region revealed that amoxicillin was predominated [17,31].”
BackgroundPhage therapy: A novel approach against multidrug-resistant pathogens
Kapoor, A., Mudaliar, S. B., Bhat, V. G., Chakraborty, I., Prasad, A. S. B., & Mazumder, N. (2024) · 3 Biotech · doi:10.1007/s13205-024-04101-8 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“In the Southeast Asian region, antibiotics are used without proper prescription from doctors, which leads to the development of drug-resistant microorganisms (Nepal and Bhatta 2018).”
BackgroundSaha, A., Marma, K. K. S., Rashid, A., Tarannum, N., Das, S., Chowdhury, T., Afrin, N., Chakraborty, P., Emran, M. A., Mehedi, H. M. H., et al. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0269622 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Antimicrobial resistance and over the counter use of drugs in Nepal
Pokharel, S., & Adhikari, B. (2020) · Journal of Global Health · doi:10.7189/jogh.10.010360 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Simon, B., & Kazaura, M. R. (2020) · Patient Preference and Adherence · doi:10.2147/ppa.s263517 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Implications of non-prescription antibiotic sales in China
Kalungia, A., & Godman, B. (2019) · The Lancet Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(19)30408-6 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Antibiotic Use and Misuse in Dentistry in India—A Systematic Review
Bhuvaraghan, A., King, R., Larvin, H., & Aggarwal, V. R. (2021) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics10121459 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Worldwide comparison of treatment guidelines for sore throat
Coutinho, G., Duerden, M. G., Sessa, A., Barradas, S. C., & Altiner, A. (2020) · International Journal of Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/ijcp.13879 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Saleem, Z., Moore, C. E., Kalungia, A. C., Schellack, N., Ogunleye, O. O., Chigome, A., Chowdhury, K., Kitutu, F. E., Massele, A. Y., Ramdas, N., et al. (2025) · JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance · doi:10.1093/jacamr/dlaf033 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Public Awareness about Antibiotic Use and Resistance among Residents in Highland Areas of Vietnam
Ha, T. V., Nguyen, A. M. T., & Nguyen, H. S. T. (2019) · BioMed Research International · doi:10.1155/2019/9398536 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Ahmad, T., Khan, F. U., Ali, S., Rahman, A. U., & Khan, S. A. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0263756 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Antibiotics’ Use in Thailand: Community Pharmacists’ Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices
Siltrakool, B., Berrou, I., Griffiths, D., & Alghamdi, S. (2021) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics10020137 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“This has been reported in Thailand [17,18] and other countries in the region [19].”
BackgroundMokwele, R. N., Schellack, N., Bronkhorst, E., Brink, A. J., Schweickerdt, L., & Godman, B. (2021) · JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance · doi:10.1093/jacamr/dlab196 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Xu, Y., Lu, J., Sun, C., Wang, X., Hu, Y. J., & Zhou, X. (2020) · The Journal of Infection in Developing Countries · doi:10.3855/jidc.11938 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“When parents temporarily feel their children’s illness too minor for seeing a doctor, they may attempt to self-medicate their children at first, and turn to hospitals if their children do not get better as they expected [31].”
BackgroundEnvironmental and Human Health Impact of Antibiotics Waste Mismanagement: A Review
Ugoeze, K. C., Alalor, C. A., Ibezim, C. N. E., Chinko, B. C., Owonaro, P., Anie, C. O., Okoronkwo, N. A., Mgbahurike, A. A., Ofomata, C. M., Alfred-Ugbenbo, D., et al. (2024) · Advances in Environmental and Engineering Research · doi:10.21926/aeer.2401005 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Duan, L., Liu, C., & Wang, D. (2021) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics10050497 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“A systematic review showed that the prevalence of self-medication of antibiotics is around 50% in the southeast Asian region [24].”
BackgroundSaleem, Z., Mekonnen, B. A., Orubu, E. S. F., Islam, M. A., Phuong, T. N. T., Ubaka, C. M., Buma, D. C., Do, N. T. T., Sant, Y., Sono, T. M., et al. (2025) · Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy · doi:10.1080/14787210.2025.2477198 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-Medication Practices among Undergraduate University Students in Northeast Ethiopia
Zewdie, S., Andargie, A., & Kassahun, H. (2020) · Risk Management and Healthcare Policy · doi:10.2147/rmhp.s266329 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Islam, M. W., Shahjahan, M., Azad, A. K., & Hossain, M. J. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-52313-y · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Miyano, S., Htoon, T. T., Nozaki, I., Pe, E. H., & Tin, H. H. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0273380 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Belachew, S. A., Hall, L., & Selvey, L. A. (2022) · Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control · doi:10.1186/s13756-022-01102-1 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“, worsening of a health situation due to incorrect self-diagnosis and the wrong choice of therapy, avoidable adverse reactions and wastage of resources or increased healthcare cost), but also increases antibiotic consumption overall [12, 13].”
BackgroundShrestha, A. B., Pokharel, P., Sapkota, U. H., Shrestha, S., Mohamed, S., Khanal, S., Jha, S. K., Mohanty, A., Padhi, B. K., Asija, A., et al. (2023) · Tropical Medicine and Infectious Disease · doi:10.3390/tropicalmed8030172 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“South Asia, comprising eight countries and one-fourth of the global population, has a high prevalence of antibiotic resistance due to a high self-medication rate, poor antibiotic stewardship plans, and changing geopolitical landscape [13].”
BackgroundLanyero, H., Eriksen, J., Obua, C., Lundborg, C. S., Nanzigu, S., Katureebe, A., Kalyango, J. N., & Ocan, M. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0235164 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“A systematic review of antibiotic self-medication in Southeastern Asian region reported amoxicillin, azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, cephalosporins and metronidazole as being the most commonly used antibacterials [32].”
BackgroundAlam, M., Saleem, Z., Haseeb, A., Qamar, M. U., Sheikh, A., Abuhussain, S. S. A., Iqbal, M. S., Raees, F., Chigome, A., Cook, A., et al. (2023) · Journal of Infection and Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.jiph.2023.10.046 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Kamati, M., Godman, B., & Kibuule, D. (2019) · Journal of Research in Pharmacy Practice · doi:10.4103/jrpp.jrpp_19_121 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“It was encouraging to see no self-purchasing of antibiotics to treat ARIs in this study in Namibia unlike the situation in a number of other African countries or those in Asia.[5,6,18,20-22] This confirms our hypothesis.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAslam, A., Zin, C. S., Rahman, N. S. A., Gajdács, M., Ahmed, S. I., & Jamshed, S. Q. (2021) · Drug Healthcare and Patient Safety · doi:10.2147/dhps.s331427 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“In addition to this, the most common reasons behind the frequent practice of self-medication with antibiotics (SMA) among the population of LMICs were prior good experience, easy availability of antibiotics, ignorance regarding the seriousness of the disease, and easily affordable in terms of time and money, knowledge…”
BackgroundPrecha, N., Sukmai, S., Hengbaru, M., Chekoh, M., Laohaprapanon, S., Makkaew, P., & Dom, N. C. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0296822 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“A lack of public knowledge about antibiotic use, attitudes toward antibiotic use and resistance, easy access to antibiotics in many places, and a lack of awareness of the policies regarding rational antibiotic use are all factors that can influence irrational antibiotic use [11, 12].”
Moonajilin, M. S., Mamun, M. A., Rahman, M. E., Mahmud, M. F., Mamun, A. S. A., Rana, M. S., & Gozal, D. (2020) · Risk Management and Healthcare Policy · doi:10.2147/rmhp.s256272 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“However, SMPs can promote the occurrence of drug addiction, enhance the risk of drug interactions and adverse drug reactions, foster the occurrence of drug toxicity, increase resistance to pathogens, waste resources, increase polypharmacy, and ultimately lead to incorrect diagnosis and poor outcomes.(3,9,12,13) Accord…”
BackgroundChuwa, B. B., Njau, L. A., Msigwa, K. I., & Shao, E. R. (2021) · African Health Sciences · doi:10.4314/ahs.v21i2.19 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Olowe, O., Adefioye, O., Ajayeoba, T., Schiebel, J., Weinreich, J., Ali, A., Burdukiewicz, M., Rödiger, S., & Schierack, P. (2019) · Scientific African · doi:10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00158 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Xu, J., Wang, X., Sun, K. S., Lin, L. K., & Zhou, X. (2020) · Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control · doi:10.1186/s13756-020-00811-9 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Additionally, SMA is promoted by lack of antibiotic use knowledge [44], previous recovery experiences [45], and keeping antibiotics at home [46].”
Investigating forthcoming strategies to tackle deadly superbugs: current status and future vision
Mitra, S., Sultana, S. A., Prova, S. R., Uddin, T. M., Islam, F., Das, R. C., Nainu, F., Sartini, S., Chidambaram, K., Alhumaydhi, F. A., et al. (2022) · Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy · doi:10.1080/14787210.2022.2122442 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Rapid diagnosis and precision treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection in clinical settings
Umar, Z., Tang, J., Marshall, B. J., Tay, C. Y., & Wang, L. (2024) · Critical Reviews in Microbiology · doi:10.1080/1040841x.2024.2364194 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“…which encompasses eight countries and constitutes a quarter of the global population, there exists a notable incidence of antibiotic resistance (Nepal and Bhatta 2018; Shrestha et al. 2023). to attain thorough elimination of H. pylori infections and alleviate their persistent diseases, a deep…”
Lin, L. K., Fearon, E., Harbarth, S., Wang, X., Lu, C., Zhou, X., & Hargreaves, J. (2020) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-039332 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Public knowledge, attitudes and practices surrounding antibiotic use and resistance in Cambodia
Lim, J. M., Chhoun, P., Tuot, S., Om, C., Krang, S., Ly, S., Hsu, L. Y., Yi, S., & Tam, C. C. (2021) · JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance · doi:10.1093/jacamr/dlaa115 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Mannan, A., Chakma, K., Dewan, G., Saha, A., Chy, N. U. H. A., Mehedi, H. M. H., Hossain, A., Wnaiza, J., Ahsan, M. T., Rana, M. M., et al. (2024) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-071504 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“29 30 An investigation in Dhaka revealed that 75% of the people polled used over- the-counter drugs, of which 16.90% were antibiotics.”
BackgroundInfluentialSunpuwan, M., Punpuing, S., Jaruruengpaisan, W., Kinsman, J., & Wertheim, H. F. L. (2019) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-019-7300-5 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“The use of self-medication is also related to a lack of enforcement of law and regulations, which enables easy over-the-counter access to medicine [27].”
BackgroundMandal, N. K., Rauniyar, G. P., Rai, D. S., Panday, D. R., Kushwaha, R. P., Agrawal, S. K., & Regmee, P. (2020) · Journal of Nepal Medical Association · doi:10.31729/jnma.4914 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Ghimire, K., Banjara, M. R., Marasini, B. P., Gyanwali, P., Poudel, S., Khatri, E., & Dhimal, M. (2023) · Microbiology Insights · doi:10.1177/11786361231167239 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“4,23,24,46 Dispensing antibiotics without prescription have became common practices especially in low income countries.”
BackgroundNursing students’ perceived consequences of self-medication: a qualitative study
Khatony, A., Soroush, A., Andayeshgar, B., & Abdi, A. (2020) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-020-00460-8 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Khan, F. U., Mallhi, T. H., Khan, Q., Khan, F. U., Hayat, K., Khan, Y. H., Ahmad, T., & Fang, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.962657 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The epidemiology of typhoid fever in the Dhulikhel area, Nepal: A prospective cohort study
Petersiel, N., Shresta, S., Tamrakar, R., Koju, R., Madhup, S. K., Shresta, A., Bedi, T., Zmora, N., Paran, Y., Schwartz, E., et al. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0204479 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Wang, L., Liang, C., Yu, H., Zhang, H., & Yan, X. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13729-1 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“A review showed that the prevalence of antibiotic selfmedication in South East Asia is around 50% [10], and approximately 43% of patients worldwide use antibiotics to treat respiratory infections [11].”
BackgroundHirwa, E. M., Mujawamariya, G., Shimelash, N., & Shyaka, A. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0300742 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Patterns of Drug Utilization and Self-Medication Practices: A Cross Sectional Study
Al-Omrani, H., Marwah, M. K., Al-Whaib, R., Mekkawy, M., & Shokr, H. (2023) · Pharmacy · doi:10.3390/pharmacy11060183 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…is primarily prevalent in economically deprived countries and developing nations, where health literacy, fewer restrictions on the sale of drugs, limited healthcare resources, and high healthcare costs can make it difficult for individuals to seek medical attention for minor health issues [22–24].”
BackgroundKong, L. S., Islahudin, F. H., Muthupalaniappen, L., & Chong, W. W. (2021) · Patient Preference and Adherence · doi:10.2147/ppa.s328890 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Khirikoekkong, N., Asarath, S.-A., Munruchaitrakun, M., Blay, N., Waithira, N., Cheah, P. Y., Nosten, F. H., Lubell, Y., Landier, J., & Althaus, T. (2023) · BMC Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12879-023-08482-8 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Duan, Z., Liu, C., Han, M., Wang, D., Zhang, X., & Liu, C. (2020) · Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy · doi:10.1016/j.sapharm.2020.07.033 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Nakato, G., Adongo, P. R., Iramiot, J. S., & Epuitai, J. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0293685 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Sono, T. M., Mboweni, V., Golić-Jelić, A., Campbell, S., Marković‐Peković, V., Ramdas, N., Schellack, N., Kumar, S., Godman, B., & Meyer, J. C. (2024) · Advances in Human Biology · doi:10.4103/aihb.aihb_119_24 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Saleem, Z., Faller, E. M., Godman, B., Malik, M. S. A., Iftikhar, A., Iqbal, S., Akbar, A., Hashim, M., Amin, A., Javeed, S., et al. (2021) · Medicine Access Point of Care · doi:10.1177/23992026211064714 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“One of the reasons for the increasing spread of AMR in this region is the high rate of irrational use of antibiotics (37-40).”
BackgroundAlmalki, M. E., Almuqati, F. S., Alotaibi, M. O., Makki, S. Y., Alqasem, M. A., Alsharif, F., & Hassan-Hussein, A. (2022) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.29944 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“For example, the WHO has cautioned against growing antibiotic resistance due to self-medication with antibiotics [7].”
Knowledge and practices related to antibiotic use among women in Malang, Indonesia
Yunita, S. L., Yang, H.-W., Chen, Y., Kao, L., Lu, Y.-Z., Wen, Y.-L., To, S.-Y., & Huang, Y. (2022) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2022.1019303 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Inappropriate antibiotic use is reportedly higher in low- and middle-income countries (Nepal and Bhatta, 2018).”
BackgroundHassan, B. A. R., Mohammed, A. H., Al‐Jewari, W. M., Blebil, A. Q., Dujaili, J. A., Wayyes, A. M., Malaeb, D. N., Dabbous, M., Othman, G. Q., Madani, A. M., et al. (2023) · Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Services Research · doi:10.1093/jphsr/rmad014 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Ayenew, W. A., Tessema, T. A., Anagaw, Y. K., Siraj, E. A., Zewdie, S., Simegn, W., Limenh, L. W., Tafere, C., & Yayehrad, A. T. (2024) · Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control · doi:10.1186/s13756-024-01417-1 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…conducted globally corroborate these findings and suggest a consistent pattern where individuals tend to self-medicate with antibiotics for similar perceived illnesses/symptoms across different regions, emphasizing the need for targeted education on appropriate antibiotic use [13, 16, 34, 40].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialDarweesh, O., Kurdi, A. B., Merkhan, M. M., Ahmed, H., Ibrahem, S., Al-Zidan, R. N., Meyer, J. C., & Godman, B. (2025) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics14040376 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“The misuse of antibiotics is a complex issue influenced by a variety of factors, incorporating cultural and behavioral characteristics, including self-medication for mild childhood infections, socioeconomic factors, and educational aspects [41–43].”
(2021) · Pharmacy Education · doi:10.46542/pe.2021.212.152162 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Demissie, F., Ereso, K., & Paulos, G. (2022) · Drug Healthcare and Patient Safety · doi:10.2147/dhps.s325150 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Evaluation of Self-Medication with Antibiotics in Primary Care Clinics in Palestine
Naseef, H., Joza’, D., Awawdeh, A., Hasan, A., Abukhalil, A. D., Al-Shami, N. A., & Rabba, A. (2022) · Patient Preference and Adherence · doi:10.2147/ppa.s384671 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“A very high prevalence of SM has been reported in Southeast Asian countries.(15) The problem is more apparent in undeveloped countries since access to medications without a prescription is simple and easy, resulting in several adverse effects, particularly bacterial resistance.”
BackgroundAntimicrobial Dispensing Practices during COVID-19 and the Implications for Pakistan
Gul, B., Sana, M., Saleem, A., Mustafa, Z. U., Salman, M., Khan, Y. H., Mallhi, T. H., Sono, T. M., Meyer, J. C., & Godman, B. (2023) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics12061018 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Antibiotics resistance mechanism
Naveed, M., Chaudhry, Z., Bukhari, S. A., Meer, B., & Ashraf, H. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818882-8.00019-x · Cited by 17 · see citing works
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Holm, M., Zellweger, R. M., Poudyal, N., Smith, K. H., Joh, H. S., & Marks, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Tropical Diseases · doi:10.3389/fitd.2022.805833 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Nguyen, N. V., Marothi, Y., & Sharma, M. (2022) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics11111473 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Additionally, according to a systematic review, URTI was the most common reason for self-medication with antibiotics in the southeast Asian region, including India [20].”
BackgroundKalpana, P., Yasobant, S., Saxena, D. B., & Schreiber, C. (2024) · Microorganisms · doi:10.3390/microorganisms12112267 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Infodemic, self-medication and stockpiling: a worrying combination
Ahmad, S., Babar, M. S., Essar, M. Y., Sinha, M., & Nadkar, A. A. (2021) · Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal · doi:10.26719/emhj.21.010 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“For example, irrational usage of amoxicillin may have adverse effects such as medication tolerance and nil response to treatment in acute otitis media, pneumonia, and urinary tract infections where amoxicillin is considered as a firstline antibiotic (6).”
BackgroundHasanuzzaman, M., Saha, S., Malaker, R., Rahman, H., Sajib, M. S. I., Das, R. C., Islam, M., Hamer, D. H., Darmstadt, G. L., & Saha, S. K. (2021) · The Journal of Infectious Diseases · doi:10.1093/infdis/jiab073 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Use of antibiotics prior to seeking care is widespread in many low- and middle-income countries, making it difficult to detect pathogenic bacteria by traditional bacteriological culture [6, 18].”
BackgroundMustafa, Z. U., Iqbal, S., Asif, H. R., Salman, M., Jabbar, S., Mallhi, T. H., Khan, Y. H., Sono, T. M., Schellack, N., Meyer, J. C., et al. (2023) · Antibiotics · doi:10.3390/antibiotics12030481 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
- Authors
- Nepal, G., & Bhatta, S.
- Affiliations
- Tribhuvan University (NP)
- Corresponding author
- Nepal, Gaurav
- ORCID
- Nepal, Gaurav
- Venue
- Cureus
- Published
- 2018-04-05
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- e2428-e2428
- ISSN
- 2168-8184 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5988199
- OpenAlex
- W2796257797
- Cited by
- 272
- References
- 38
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 31 · 2019: 23 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 3.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- diamond
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Cureus (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology › Antibiotic Use and Resistance
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Medicine › Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Keywords
- self-medication, antibiotics, antibiotic resistance, multidrug resistance, inappropriate medication use, community antibiotic use, Southeast Asia, infectious diseases, antimicrobial stewardship
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