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A practical review of functional neurological disorder (FND) for the general physician
Open accessAbstract
We present a practical overview of functional neurological disorder (FND), its epidemiology, assessment and diagnosis, diagnostic pitfalls, treatment, aetiology and mechanism. We present an update on functional limb weakness, tremor, dystonia and other abnormal movements, dissociative seizures, functional cognitive symptoms and urinary retention, and 'scan-negative' cauda equina syndrome. The diagnosis of FND should rest on clear positive evidence, typically from a combination of physical signs on examination or the nature of seizures. In treatment of FND, clear communication of the diagnosis and the involvement of the multidisciplinary team is beneficial. We recommend that patients with FND are referred to specialists with expertise in neurological diagnosis. FND is a common presentation in emergency and acute medical settings and there are many practical elements to making a positive diagnosis and communication which are useful for all physicians to be familiar with.
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“The past decades have seen significant efforts by clinicians and academics involved in the assessment and treatment of FND generally to assist colleagues in primary and secondary care to identify and manage patients with these conditions (34, 35, 36).”
From A qualitative analysis of patients' day-to-day living with functional cognitive disorder (FCD). (2025) · cites this paper as [34]
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“However, these figures likely underestimate its true prevalence due to underdiagnosis and misdiagnosis, particularly in regions with limited access to specialized care or diagnostic resources [6].”
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Weber, S., Bühler, J., Vanini, G., Loukas, S., Bruckmaier, R., & Aybek, S. (2023) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awac442 · Cited by 63
Functional neurological disorder: Clinical manifestations and comorbidities; an online survey
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Silverberg, N., & Rush, B. (2023) · Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2023.2228527 · Cited by 29
“Contemporary diagnostic criteria for FCD imply that neuropsychological testing is unnecessary because a diagnosis can be made on the basis of internal inconsistencies identified through clinical interview (Ball et al., 2020; Bennett et al., 2021; McWhirter & Carson, 2022).”
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“Patients with a functional neurological disorder (FND) (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) present with neurological symptoms (Bennett et al., 2021) that cannot be attributed to a classical neurological disease (Drane et al., 2020) but are rather of functional nature.”
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Tinazzi, M., Fiorio, M., Berardelli, A., Bonetti, B., Bonifati, D. M., Burlina, A. P., Cagnin, A., Calabria, F., Corbetta, M., Cortelli, P., et al. (2021) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-021-10840-y · Cited by 25
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“Despite these symptoms, medical investigations (e.g., MRI and EEGs) do not show any structural abnormalities, indicating that symptoms may instead be the result of an issue with the functioning of the nervous system (Bennett et al., 2021).”
ONOFRJ, M. C., Digiovanni, A., Ajdinaj, P., Russo, M., Carrarini, C., Giannantonio, M. D., Martinotti, G., & Sensi, S. L. (2021) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10072-021-05422-9 · Cited by 17
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Kannan, S., Patel, K., Basilio, D. D., Kirkby, A., Sivan, M., Jones, A. K. P., Mohanraj, R., & Das, A. (2025) · BMJ Neurology Open · doi:10.1136/bmjno-2025-001032 · Cited by 15
Functional Speech and Voice Disorders
Freeburn, J. L., & Baker, J. (2023) · Neurologic Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2023.02.005 · Cited by 14
Long COVID Is Not a Functional Neurologic Disorder
Davenport, T. E., Blitshteyn, S., Clague-Baker, N., Davies‐Payne, D., Treisman, G. J., & Tyson, S. F. (2024) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm14080799 · Cited by 13
“A neurologic examination is used to demonstrate evidence of internal inconsistency between voluntary movements and automatic movements through findings of a positive Hoover’s sign and hip abductor sign [107].”
MethodSleep disorders in functional neurological disorder - a systematic review and meta-analysis
Kannan, S., Dutta, A., & Das, A. (2024) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10072-024-07931-9 · Cited by 13
“Functional neurological disorders (FND) are a spectrum of conditions that manifest primarily through disruptions in brain network function rather than structural changes and one of the most common causes of Neurology outpatient visits or in-patient admissions [1, 2].”
Psychogenic Nonepileptic Seizures in Children and Adolescents
Albert, D. V. F. (2021) · Seminars in Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.spen.2021.100949 · Cited by 12
Persistent postural‐perceptual dizziness versus vestibular migraine: A narrative review
Moreno‐Ajona, D. (2025) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/head.15078 · Cited by 12
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Кельмансон, А., Kalichman, L., & Treger, I. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20105793 · Cited by 16
“There is a significantly higher occurrence of FNDs in women (3:1 ratio) [3,4,15].”
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“Given the wide range of symptoms, high rates of mental health comorbidities, and misdiagnosis or lack of understanding of the diagnosis, people with FS are often overmedicated, which may exacerbate symptoms (Bennett et al., 2021).”
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The neuropsychology of functional neurological disorders
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“FNDs consist of neurological symptoms (e.g., seizures, tremors, memory loss) that are due to neural network dysfunction rather than readily identifiable structural pathology (Aybek & Perez, 2022; Bennett et al., 2021).”
BackgroundPhysiotherapy management of functional movement disorders: the patient perspective
Zeun, D., & Hunter, H. (2023) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2023.2272709 · Cited by 11
“…by a disorder in the functioning of the nervous system rather than a known structural disease process and are distinct from malingering and fictitious disorders [2]. they are the second most common reason for referral to a neurology clinic with around 8000 new diagnoses a year in the UK [3,4].”
Vance, R. C., Clarke, S., O’Keeffe, F. M., Galligan, T., Doherty, A. M., Flynn, C., Kelleher, E., Laffan, A., Doherty, C. P., & Gillan, D. (2024) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.3362 · Cited by 10
“Similarly, rates of disagreement were captured by those who endorsed either “Disagree” or “Strongly Disagree,” in keeping with Lehn and colleagues (Bennett et al., 2021).”
BackgroundHow do I manage functional visual loss
Ramsay, N., McKee, J. B., Al-Ani, G., & Stone, J. (2024) · Eye · doi:10.1038/s41433-024-03126-w · Cited by 10
“If treatment is being attempted then experience more broadly with FND suggests that therapists notice greatly enhanced treatment responses if the diagnosing clinician or a health professional who can explain the method of diagnosis, remains involved [22].”
BackgroundSelf-citationRezaei, O., & Stanley, M. J. (2025) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2025.2481986 · Cited by 10
Regnath, F., Biersack, K., Schröder, L., Stainer, M.-C., von Werder, D., Pürner, D., Haslinger, B. A., & Lehnen, N. (2024) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2024.111694 · Cited by 9
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Trastornos neurológicos funcionales (TNF): unificando el dualismo mente-cerebro
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Multidisciplinary Treatment for Functional Movement Disorder
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Self-citationComorbidities Across Functional Neurological Disorder Subtypes: A Comprehensive Narrative Synthesis
Mavroudis, I. A., Franekova, K., Petridis, F., Ciobica, A. S., Dăscălescu, G., Anton, E., Ilea, C. G., Papagiannopoulos, S., & Kazis, D. A. (2025) · Life · doi:10.3390/life15081322 · Cited by 11
“…referral cohorts, FND accounts for approximately 5–10% of new consultations, while population-based estimates in the United Kingdom suggest an annual incidence of about 12 per 100,000 individuals, equating to roughly 8000 new cases each year and a community prevalence of 50,000–100,000 people [1].”
ONOFRJ, M. C., Ajdinaj, P., Digiovanni, A., Malek, N., Martinotti, G., Ferro, F. M., Russo, M., Thomas, A., & Sensi, S. L. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1120981 · Cited by 10
“Several reviews and position papers (1, 21) have detailed the main reasons to separate FND into a category that can cover a welldemarcated group of patients acceptable in much wider neurology practice settings including out-patient and in-patient settings.”
BackgroundModèles de soins validés pour les patients souffrant de troubles neurologiques fonctionnels
Rauline, G., Hingray, C., Carle, G., Hubsch, C. A., El‐Hage, W., Conejero, I., Samalin, L., Garcin, B., & Gharib, A. (2023) · L Encéphale · doi:10.1016/j.encep.2023.06.005 · Cited by 8
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Al‐Beltagi, M., Saeed, N. K., Bediwy, A. S., Bediwy, E. A., & Elbeltagi, R. M. (2025) · World Journal of Clinical Pediatrics · doi:10.5409/wjcp.v14.i3.105290 · Cited by 7
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“Our results highlight that patients with FMDs are as disabled and have as impaired quality of life as patients with other movement disorders [40 ].”
Sireci, F., Ragucci, F., Menozzi, C., Cabboi, M. P., Picchetto, L., Bassi, M. C., Ghirotto, L., Cavallieri, F., Pedroni, C., & Valzania, F. (2024) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-024-12441-x · Cited by 9
“People experiencing functional neurological symptoms often suffer from comorbid anxiety and depression, either because of misdiagnosis, struggling with the symptoms, or previous adverse life experiences [93].”
Psilocybin and Motor Function: A Triple‐Blind, Dose‐Finding Study in Healthy Participants
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“The third category includes other brain conditions like migraines and sleep disorders, that do not result in structural or functional damage to the brain [2,7,8].”
Scholfield, D. W., Chandrasekharan, D. P., Bahra, A., Williams, M., & Patel, N. (2022) · The Journal of Laryngology & Otology · doi:10.1017/s0022215122001530 · Cited by 5
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“Currently, FND is estimated to represent over 15% of all referrals to neurology (Stone et al., 2010) with an annual incidence of 12 in 100,000 worldwide (Bennett et al., 2021).”
BackgroundFunctional Neurological Disorder
Butler, M., & Nicholson, T. R. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781911623861.018 · Cited by 5
Recognising and managing functional neurological disorder in the acute healthcare setting
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“27 As with other neurological disorders, confirmation of the diagnosis of FND should be attained through consultation with a neurologist.”
Functional Neurological Disorder in Saudi Arabia: An Update
Tayeb, H. O. (2023) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.47607 · Cited by 4
Cognitive behavioural therapy for neurologists
Stanton, B. R., Chalder, T., & Carvalho, C. (2023) · Practical Neurology · doi:10.1136/pn-2023-003857 · Cited by 4
“Functional neurological disorder accounts for 10% of all neurological appointments 28 and it is characterised by a wide range of symptoms including motor disorders, seizures and cognitive symptoms.”
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“The presentation of functional dystonia is associated with pain and disability, whereas other dystonia’s are generally mobile and more variable in posture [70].”
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Functional seizures and binge eating disorder: A cross-sectional study
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“Functional seizures (FS) are paroxysmal changes, limited in time, in responsiveness, motor and sensory activity or behaviour which resemble several medical conditions, namely epileptic seizures, but are the result of complex neuropsychiatric dysfunctions [1].”
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Udofia, A., & Rocke, T. P. (2022) · Clinical Case Reports · doi:10.1002/ccr3.6430 · Cited by 4
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“10 However, many of these established strategies for the treatment of FND are not feasible or available in the ED.”
Functional neurologic disorder (FND) in pediatrics
Baidoo, L. (2022) · The Nurse Practitioner · doi:10.1097/01.npr.0000873532.17436.85 · Cited by 3
“FND is two to three times more common in females and can occur at all ages, although it is rare to present before the age of 10, therefore largely affecting the adolescent population.(5,6) The symptoms of FND can be severely disabling and affect physical functioning, school attendance/activities, and socialization.”
InfluentialFunctional neurological disorder in Saudi Arabia: A retrospective study
Tayeb, H. O. (2023) · The International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine · doi:10.1177/00912174231215908 · Cited by 3
“The author systematically went through pertinent elements of the clinical evaluation to diagnose FND.”
InfluentialPhysical therapy evaluation and treatment of functional movement disorders: A case series
Mowry, H., Perez, E., Stillwell, A., & Shearin, S. (2025) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/09593985.2025.2514126 · Cited by 3
“Women are about three times more likely to be diagnosed with this condition as compared to men; however, as the age of symptom onset increases, the proportion of men affected increases (Baizabal ‐ Carvallo and Jankovic, 2020; Bennett et al, 2021).”
Assessing the hidden burden of psychiatric disease in patients with nonepileptic seizures
Lenio, S., Baker, S., Watson, M. M., Libbon, R., Sillau, S., & Strom, L. A. (2021) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2021.108382 · Cited by 3
Pearce, L. N., Prindiville, P., Scroggie, C., Taylor, G., Clarke, A., Foster, A. M., & Milne, S. (2024) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1155/2024/5547318 · Cited by 3
“Neurologist involvement is the frst critical step to providing successful care as they have a distinct role in communicating a FND diagnosis [27, 28] and providing ongoing education and monitoring.”
BackgroundErweiterte Diagnostik bei dissoziativen Anfällen
Schöne, C., Abourafia, K., & Pensel, M. C. (2024) · Clinical Epileptology · doi:10.1007/s10309-024-00683-8 · Cited by 3
Alshimemeri, S. A., Alabandi, F. A., Binabbad, R. S., Elmutawi, H., Alabdi, G., & Gilmour, G. S. (2024) · BMC Neurology · doi:10.1186/s12883-024-03810-0 · Cited by 4
“Considering that FND is now a “rule-in” diagnosis, positive diagnostic criteria should be utilized [13], which in turn would minimise diagnostic delays and enhance the overall management.”
BackgroundFunctional Neurological Disorder: Overview and a Case Study
Muhrer, J. C. (2021) · The Journal for Nurse Practitioners · doi:10.1016/j.nurpra.2021.08.020 · Cited by 3
A qualitative analysis of patients' day-to-day living with functional cognitive disorder (FCD).
Mantovani, N., Poole, N., Cope, S., Vanzan, S., Duffus, A., Williams, T., Smith, J. G., Barrett, B., Scicluna, M., Beardmore, S., et al. (2025) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2025.2460725 · Cited by 2
“The past decades have seen significant efforts by clinicians and academics involved in the assessment and treatment of FND generally to assist colleagues in primary and secondary care to identify and manage patients with these conditions [35,36].”
Gatherer, C., & Garip, G. (2025) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941251351234 · Cited by 2
Functional Neurological Disorders: A Comprehensive Review.
Lalitha, L., Acharya, P., Javali, M., Mehta, A., & Rangaiah, P. (2025) · Journal of Association of Physicians of India · doi:10.59556/japi.73.1051 · Cited by 1
Functional movement and gait disorders: A matter of age?
Kayombo, G. K., Witjas, T., Comet, C., Mira, V., Benchetrit, E., Monteiro-Dias, N., Fortanier, É., Maarouf, A., Eusébio, A., Azulay, J., et al. (2025) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2025.112471 · Cited by 2
Muhr, P. (2026) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2026.119108 · Cited by 2
Othman, A., Cecchini, A. A., EFTAIHA, A., Nwosisi, N., & Pierce, D. M. (2022) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.26378 · Cited by 2
“Pharmacologic therapy currently has no direct role in the treatment of FND, but it may be used to treat coexisting psychiatric or neurological disorders [9].”
BackgroundInfluentialDevon Partnership NHS Trust, U., Russell, L. A., Butler, L., Exeter Neuro Rehabilitation Services, U., Lovegrove, C., Owens, C., Devon Partnership NHS Trust, U., Roberts, L., Yates, P., Devon Partnership NHS Trust, U., et al. (2022) · Advances in Clinical Neuroscience & Rehabilitation · doi:10.47795/kazj3546 · Cited by 2
Functional Neurological Disorders
Sinanović, O., Zukić, S., Banović, S., Sinanović, E., & Muftić, M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-33013-1_14 · Cited by 2
Boico, V., Humblestone, S., Moutoussis, M., & Selai, C. E. (2023) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12709 · Cited by 2
“…can range in duration from brief to persistent episodes (Petrochilos et al., 2020), including motor (e.g., jerks, weakness and tremor) and sensory symptoms (e.g., pins and needles) to impaired vision and/ or speech, dissociative events, seizures and cognitive dysfunction (Bennett et al., 2021).”
Scheurich, J. A., Klaas, K. M., Sim, L. A., Weiss, K., Case, H. F., & Harbeck‐Weber, C. (2024) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2024.109689 · Cited by 2
Leochico, C. F. D., Mitchell, S. B., Levitt, S. E., Tam, A. K. H., & Guo, M. (2024) · Journal of the International Society of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.1097/ph9.0000000000000029 · Cited by 2
Leandertz, M., & Ala-Ruona, E. (2024) · Approaches An Interdisciplinary Journal of Music Therapy · doi:10.56883/aijmt.2024.395 · Cited by 2
Funktionelle neurologische Störungen in der Neurorehabilitation
Schmidt, R., van Husen, D. K., Gegusch, M., & Schmid, D. A. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-66957-0_38 · Cited by 2
A Measure of Swallow Effort Using the Borg Category Ratio 10 Perceived Exertion Scale
Cortez-Aoyagi, M., Gufstason, E., Murphy, A. M., & van Mersbergen, M. (2023) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/2023_ajslp-23-00090 · Cited by 2
Varley, D., Scorer, L., Bramley, S., & Feltz-Cornelis, C. M. V. D. (2024) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2024.04.008 · Cited by 2
Functional neurological disorder: a review
Dusara, K., Davies, S., & Lee, Y. (2023) · BDJ · doi:10.1038/s41415-023-6054-8 · Cited by 1
Işık, N. A., Grager, B., Neugebauer, J., & Pauli, J. D. (2024) · Psychiatria Danubina · doi:10.24869/psyd.2024.118 · Cited by 1
Optimizing the Team Approach: Designing a Clinical Care Pathway for Functional Neurological Disorder
Brown, L., Norwood, M., & Thompson, L. G. (2024) · Journal for Healthcare Quality · doi:10.1097/jhq.0000000000000445 · Cited by 1
Psychological assessment and support in functional neurological disorder: a longitudinal study
Radin, Y., Bulfon, M., Caruso, P., Barbi, E., Manganotti, P., & Clarici, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1506069 · Cited by 2
Assessment of emergency department physician perspectives on people with functional seizures
Moore, M., Watson, M. M., & Strom, L. A. (2025) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2025.110494 · Cited by 1
Prevalence of somatic symptom and related disorders at a tertiary neuroimmunology clinic
Sarin, S., Borthwick, K. G., Kumar, P., Shrestha, R., & Abboud, H. (2025) · Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.msard.2025.106588 · Cited by 1
Maassen, L., Fox, N., & Stiller, K. R. (2025) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2025.123671 · Cited by 1
Davies, S., Rafi, D., Rifkin-Zybutz, R. P., Heyland, S., & Jadhakhan, F. (2025) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2025-101122 · Cited by 1
Raffman, E. S., Sorets, T. R., Golding, D., Finley, J. A., Carson, A. J., & Cotton, E. (2025) · Journal of Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.20250097 · Cited by 1
Self-citationPlacebo in Functional Neurological Disorders: Promise and Controversy
Szejko, N., Abusrair, A. H., Pasierski, T., Schmitt, S., Cramer, C., Pietrzykowski, T., Dunalska, A., Saramak, K., Śmiłowska, K., Serranová, T., et al. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13222863 · Cited by 1
“Although incongruity or incompatibility with recognized neurological disease remains in the diagnostic criteria, this is increasingly viewed as a problematic exclusion criterion, as not all disease patterns are fully understood [6].”
Unseen struggles: The psychosocial toll of raising a child with functional neurological disorder
Ahmad, W., Dastagir, M., Azhar, I. A., Ahmad, S., & Batool, S. (2025) · Journal of Shalamar Medical & Dental College - JSHMDC · doi:10.53685/jshmdc.v6i2.337 · Cited by 1
Chappidi, R., Serafin, J., & Barnett, K. M. (2026) · A&A Practice · doi:10.1213/xaa.0000000000002159 · Cited by 1
Hjiej, G., Sikkal, A., Khattab, H., Haddouali, K., Bellakhdar, S., Otmani, H. E., Moutawakil, B. E., & Rafai, M. A. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2026.111913 · Cited by 1
Building a Functional Neurological Disorder Program: Finding Solutions to Common Obstacles
López, M. R., & LaFrance, W. C., Jr. (2026) · Seminars in Neurology · doi:10.1055/a-2796-7123 · Cited by 1
A guide to functional disease for a trauma conscious generation
Whitfield, A. (2021) · Clinical Medicine · doi:10.7861/clinmed.2020-1023 · Cited by 1
Morisetty, H., Wallace, N., & Ugorji, U. (2021) · Frontiers in Medical Case Reports · doi:10.47746/fmcr.2021.2506 · Cited by 1
“Studies indicate FND can occur in all age groups, although rarer in patients under 10 years of age (Bennett et al., 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialFunctional Neurological Disorders in Children and Adolescents – A Long-Overdue Renaissance
Albert, D. V. F. (2022) · Seminars in Pediatric Neurology · doi:10.1016/j.spen.2022.100954 · Cited by 1
Considerations in the Management of Functional Neurological Disorders in Patients with Hearing Loss
Libdeh, A. A., Alkalbani, L., Freedman, D., Quezada, J., & Nyp, S. S. (2023) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000001170 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Bennett, K., Diamond, C., Hoeritzauer, I., Gardiner, P., McWhirter, L., Carson, A., & Stone, J.
- Affiliations
- Edinburgh Royal Infirmary (GB)
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- Venue
- Clinical Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-01
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 28-36
- ISSN
- 1470-2118 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7850207
- OpenAlex
- W3123764886
- Cited by
- 169
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 8
- FWCI
- 4.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Clinical Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Syncope and Autonomic Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Research
- Keywords
- conversion disorder, functional tremor, functional dystonia, psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, urinary retention, cauda equina syndrome, diagnostic pitfalls, etiology, multidisciplinary management, emergency medicine
- MeSH terms
- Conversion Disorder, Emergency Service, Hospital, Humans, Nervous System Diseases, Seizures, Tremor, General Practitioners
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