The DOI matches its Crossref record; 51 of the 52 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A practical review of functional neurological disorder (FND) for the general physician
Open accessAbstract
We present a practical overview of functional neurological disorder (FND), its epidemiology, assessment and diagnosis, diagnostic pitfalls, treatment, aetiology and mechanism. We present an update on functional limb weakness, tremor, dystonia and other abnormal movements, dissociative seizures, functional cognitive symptoms and urinary retention, and 'scan-negative' cauda equina syndrome. The diagnosis of FND should rest on clear positive evidence, typically from a combination of physical signs on examination or the nature of seizures. In treatment of FND, clear communication of the diagnosis and the involvement of the multidisciplinary team is beneficial. We recommend that patients with FND are referred to specialists with expertise in neurological diagnosis. FND is a common presentation in emergency and acute medical settings and there are many practical elements to making a positive diagnosis and communication which are useful for all physicians to be familiar with.
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“The past decades have seen significant efforts by clinicians and academics involved in the assessment and treatment of FND generally to assist colleagues in primary and secondary care to identify and manage patients with these conditions (34, 35, 36).”
From A qualitative analysis of patients' day-to-day living with functional cognitive disorder (FCD). (2025) · cites this paper as [34]
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Citations
Cites
Current Concepts in Diagnosis and Treatment of Functional Neurological Disorders
Espay, A. J., Aybek, S., Carson, A., Edwards, M. J., Goldstein, L. H., Hallett, M., LaFaver, K., LaFrance, W. C., Lang, A. E., Nicholson, T., et al. (2018) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.1264 · Cited by 786
Self-citationSymptoms and the body: taking the inferential leap
Van den Bergh, O., Witthöft, M., Petersen, S., & Brown, R. J. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.015 · Cited by 543
Who is referred to neurology clinics?—The diagnoses made in 3781 new patients
Stone, J., Carson, A. J., Duncan, R., Roberts, R., Warlow, C., Hibberd, C., Coleman, R. J., Cull, R. E., Murray, G. D., Pelosi, A. J., et al. (2010) · Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery · doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2010.05.011 · Cited by 538
Self-citationLudwig, L., Pasman, J. A., Nicholson, T., Aybek, S., David, A. S., Tuck, S., Kanaan, R. A., Roelofs, K., Carson, A., & Stone, J. (2018) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(18)30051-8 · Cited by 495
Self-citationPhysiotherapy for functional motor disorders: a consensus recommendation
Nielsen, G., Stone, J., Matthews, A., Brown, M., Sparkes, C., Farmer, R., Masterton, L., Duncan, L., Winters, A., Daniell, L., et al. (2014) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2014-309255 · Cited by 427
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Self-citationThe involuntary nature of conversion disorder
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Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Stephen, 2019, Healthcare utilization and emergency department/inpatient costs in adult and pediatric functional neurological disorders, Movement Disorders International Congress
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges
Mavroudis, I. A., Kazis, D. A., Kamal, F. Z., Gurzu, I. L., Ciobica, A. S., Pădurariu, M., Novac, B., & Iordache, A. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25084470 · Cited by 88
“However, these figures likely underestimate its true prevalence due to underdiagnosis and misdiagnosis, particularly in regions with limited access to specialized care or diagnostic resources [6].”
BackgroundIdentification of biopsychological trait markers in functional neurological disorders
Weber, S., Bühler, J., Vanini, G., Loukas, S., Bruckmaier, R., & Aybek, S. (2023) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awac442 · Cited by 63
Functional neurological disorder: Clinical manifestations and comorbidities; an online survey
Ducroizet, A., Zimianti, I., Golder, D., Hearne, K., Edwards, M. J., Nielsen, G., & Coebergh, J. A. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2023.02.014 · Cited by 57
Joffe, A. R., & Elliott, A. (2023) · SAGE Open Medicine · doi:10.1177/20503121231194400 · Cited by 50
Neuropsychological evaluation of functional cognitive disorder: A narrative review
Silverberg, N., & Rush, B. (2023) · Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2023.2228527 · Cited by 29
“Contemporary diagnostic criteria for FCD imply that neuropsychological testing is unnecessary because a diagnosis can be made on the basis of internal inconsistencies identified through clinical interview (Ball et al., 2020; Bennett et al., 2021; McWhirter & Carson, 2022).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Bennett, K., Diamond, C., Hoeritzauer, I., Gardiner, P., McWhirter, L., Carson, A., & Stone, J.
- Affiliations
- Edinburgh Royal Infirmary (GB)
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- Venue
- Clinical Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-01
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 28-36
- ISSN
- 1470-2118 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7850207
- OpenAlex
- W3123764886
- Cited by
- 169
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 8
- FWCI
- 4.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Clinical Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Syncope and Autonomic Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Research
- Keywords
- conversion disorder, functional tremor, functional dystonia, psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, urinary retention, cauda equina syndrome, diagnostic pitfalls, etiology, multidisciplinary management, emergency medicine
- MeSH terms
- Conversion Disorder, Emergency Service, Hospital, Humans, Nervous System Diseases, Seizures, Tremor, General Practitioners
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