The DOI matches its Crossref record; 51 of the 52 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A practical review of functional neurological disorder (FND) for the general physician
Open accessAbstract
We present a practical overview of functional neurological disorder (FND), its epidemiology, assessment and diagnosis, diagnostic pitfalls, treatment, aetiology and mechanism. We present an update on functional limb weakness, tremor, dystonia and other abnormal movements, dissociative seizures, functional cognitive symptoms and urinary retention, and 'scan-negative' cauda equina syndrome. The diagnosis of FND should rest on clear positive evidence, typically from a combination of physical signs on examination or the nature of seizures. In treatment of FND, clear communication of the diagnosis and the involvement of the multidisciplinary team is beneficial. We recommend that patients with FND are referred to specialists with expertise in neurological diagnosis. FND is a common presentation in emergency and acute medical settings and there are many practical elements to making a positive diagnosis and communication which are useful for all physicians to be familiar with.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The past decades have seen significant efforts by clinicians and academics involved in the assessment and treatment of FND generally to assist colleagues in primary and secondary care to identify and manage patients with these conditions (34, 35, 36).”
From A qualitative analysis of patients' day-to-day living with functional cognitive disorder (FCD). (2025) · cites this paper as [34]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Current Concepts in Diagnosis and Treatment of Functional Neurological Disorders
Espay, A. J., Aybek, S., Carson, A., Edwards, M. J., Goldstein, L. H., Hallett, M., LaFaver, K., LaFrance, W. C., Lang, A. E., Nicholson, T., et al. (2018) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2018.1264 · Cited by 786
Self-citationSymptoms and the body: taking the inferential leap
Van den Bergh, O., Witthöft, M., Petersen, S., & Brown, R. J. (2017) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.015 · Cited by 543
Who is referred to neurology clinics?—The diagnoses made in 3781 new patients
Stone, J., Carson, A. J., Duncan, R., Roberts, R., Warlow, C., Hibberd, C., Coleman, R. J., Cull, R. E., Murray, G. D., Pelosi, A. J., et al. (2010) · Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery · doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2010.05.011 · Cited by 538
Self-citationLudwig, L., Pasman, J. A., Nicholson, T., Aybek, S., David, A. S., Tuck, S., Kanaan, R. A., Roelofs, K., Carson, A., & Stone, J. (2018) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(18)30051-8 · Cited by 495
Self-citationPhysiotherapy for functional motor disorders: a consensus recommendation
Nielsen, G., Stone, J., Matthews, A., Brown, M., Sparkes, C., Farmer, R., Masterton, L., Duncan, L., Winters, A., Daniell, L., et al. (2014) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2014-309255 · Cited by 427
Self-citationStone, J., Carson, A., Duncan, R., Coleman, R., Roberts, R., Warlow, C., Hibberd, C., Murray, G., Cull, R., Pelosi, A., et al. (2009) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awp220 · Cited by 356
Self-citationThe involuntary nature of conversion disorder
Voon, V., Gallea, C., Hattori, N., Bruno, M., Ekanayake, V., & Hallett, M. (2010) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e3181ca00e9 · Cited by 335
Popkirov, S., Staab, J. P., & Stone, J. (2018) · Practical Neurology · doi:10.1136/practneurol-2017-001809 · Cited by 334
Self-citationGoldstein, L. H., Robinson, E. J., Mellers, J. D. C., Stone, J., Carson, A., Reuber, M., Medford, N., McCrone, P., Murray, J., Richardson, M. P., et al. (2020) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(20)30128-0 · Cited by 287
Self-citationCarson, A. J., Stone, J., Hibberd, C., Murray, G. D., Duncan, R., Coleman, R. J., Warlow, C., ROBERTS, R. C., Pelosi, A. J., Cavanagh, J., et al. (2011) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.2010.220640 · Cited by 273
Self-citationRandomised feasibility study of physiotherapy for patients with functional motor symptoms
Nielsen, G., Buszewicz, M., Stevenson, F., Hunter, R., Holt, K., Dudziec, M., Ricciardi, L., Marsden, J., Joyce, E., & Edwards, M. (2017) · Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2016-314408 · Cited by 246
Avberšek, A., & Sisodiya, S. M. (2010) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.2009.197996 · Cited by 243
Teodoro, T., Edwards, M. J., & Isaacs, J. D. (2018) · Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2017-317823 · Cited by 241
Functional cognitive disorders: a systematic review
McWhirter, L., Ritchie, C., Stone, J., & Carson, A. (2020) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(19)30405-5 · Cited by 240
Self-citationA framework for understanding the pathophysiology of functional neurological disorder
Drane, D. L., Fani, N., Hallett, M., Khalsa, S. S., Perez, D. L., & Roberts, N. A. (2020) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852920001789 · Cited by 220
Kutlubaev, M. A., Xu, Y., Hackett, M. L., & Stone, J. (2018) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2018.10.010 · Cited by 205
Self-citationTietjen, G. E., Brandes, J. L., Peterlin, B. L., Eloff, A., Dafer, R. M., Stein, M. R., Drexler, E. D., Martin, V. T., Hutchinson, S. L., Aurora, S. K., et al. (2009) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2009.01556.x · Cited by 204
Functional cognitive disorder: dementia’s blind spot
Ball, H. A., McWhirter, L., Ballard, C., Bhome, R., Blackburn, D. J., Edwards, M. J., Fleming, S. M., Fox, N. C., Howard, R., Huntley, J., et al. (2020) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awaa224 · Cited by 203
Self-citationStephen, C. D., Fung, V., Lungu, C. I., & Espay, A. J. (2021) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.3753 · Cited by 187
Occupational therapy consensus recommendations for functional neurological disorder
Nicholson, C., Edwards, M. J., Carson, A. J., Gardiner, P., Golder, D., Hayward, K., Humblestone, S., Jinadu, H., Lumsden, C., MacLean, J., et al. (2020) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2019-322281 · Cited by 159
Self-citationStress and functional neurological disorders: mechanistic insights
Keynejad, R. C., Frodl, T., Kanaan, R., Pariante, C., Reuber, M., & Nicholson, T. R. (2019) · Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2018-318297 · Cited by 151
Prognosis of functional neurologic disorders
Gelauff, J., & Stone, J. (2016) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00043-6 · Cited by 121
Self-citationStone, J., Carson, A., Duncan, R., Roberts, R., Coleman, R., Warlow, C., Murray, G., Pelosi, A., Cavanagh, J., Matthews, K., et al. (2012) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-011-6111-0 · Cited by 110
Self-citationFunctional (Psychogenic) Cognitive Disorders: A Perspective from the Neurology Clinic
Stone, J., Pal, S., Blackburn, D., Reuber, M., Thekkumpurath, P., & Carson, A. (2015) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-150430 · Cited by 107
Self-citationBendels, M. H. K., Dietz, M. C., Brüggmann, D., Oremek, G. M., Schöffel, N., & Groneberg, D. A. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020089 · Cited by 101
Incidence and outcome of functional stroke mimics admitted to a hyperacute stroke unit
Gargalas, S., Weeks, R., Khan-Bourne, N., Shotbolt, P., Simblett, S. K., Ashraf, L., Doyle, C., Bancroft, V., & David, A. S. (2015) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2015-311114 · Cited by 99
Complex regional pain syndrome and functional neurological disorders—Time for reconciliation
Popkirov, S., Hoeritzauer, I., Colvin, L., Carson, A. J., & Stone, J. (2019) · Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp-2018-318298 · Cited by 94
Self-citationHendrickson, R., Popescu, A., Dixit, R., Ghearing, G. R., & Bagic, A. I. (2014) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2014.06.026 · Cited by 83
Cranial functional (psychogenic) movement disorders
Kaski, D. N., Bronstein, A. M., Edwards, M. J., & Stone, J. (2015) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(15)00226-4 · Cited by 73
Self-citationRobson, C., & Lian, O. S. (2017) · Wellcome Open Research · doi:10.12688/wellcomeopenres.12133.2 · Cited by 72
The safety of antiepileptic drug withdrawal in patients with non-epileptic seizures
Oto, M. (2005) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.2005.064063 · Cited by 70
Do observer and self‐reports of ictal eye closure predict psychogenic nonepileptic seizures?
Syed, T. U., Arozullah, A. M., Suciu, G., Toub, J., Kim, H., Dougherty, M. L., Wehner, T., Stojic, A., Syed, I., & Alexopoulos, A. V. (2008) · Epilepsia · doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2007.01456.x · Cited by 68
Duffy, J. R. (2016) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00033-3 · Cited by 64
Hoeritzauer, I., Pronin, S., Carson, A. J., Statham, P. F. X., Demetriades, A. K., & Stone, J. (2018) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-018-9078-2 · Cited by 63
Self-citationFunctional Neurological Disorder
Popkirov, S., Stone, J., & Buchan, A. M. (2020) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/strokeaha.120.029076 · Cited by 55
Self-citationDickson, J. M., Jacques, R., Reuber, M., Hick, J., Campbell, M. J., Morley, R., & Grünewald, R. A. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023352 · Cited by 53
The misdiagnosis of functional disorders as other neurological conditions
Walzl, D., Carson, A. J., & Stone, J. (2019) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-019-09356-3 · Cited by 53
Self-citationAssessment of patients with functional neurologic disorders
Carson, A. J., Hallett, M., & Stone, J. (2016) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00015-1 · Cited by 51
Self-citationFunctional Cognitive Disorder: A Common Cause of Subjective Cognitive Symptoms
Pennington, C. M., Hayre, A., Newson, M., & Coulthard, E. J. (2015) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-150182 · Cited by 50
Isolated urinary retention in young women, or Fowler's syndrome
Swinn, M. J., & Fowler, C. J. (2001) · Clinical Autonomic Research · doi:10.1007/bf02332976 · Cited by 43
Reuber, M., Blackburn, D. J., Elsey, C., Wakefield, S., Ardern, K., Harkness, K., Venneri, A., Jones, D., Shaw, C. B., & Drew, P. (2018) · Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders · doi:10.1097/wad.0000000000000231 · Cited by 41
Internet-based self-help randomized trial for motor functional neurologic disorder (SHIFT)
Gelauff, J., Rosmalen, J. G. M., Carson, A. J., Dijk, J. M., Ekkel, M., Nielsen, G., Stone, J., & Tijssen, M. A. J. (2020) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000010381 · Cited by 41
Self-citationFowler's syndrome of urinary retention: A retrospective study of co‐morbidity
Hoeritzauer, I., Stone, J., Fowler, C. J., Elneil, S., Carson, A. J., & Panicker, J. N. (2015) · Neurourology and Urodynamics · doi:10.1002/nau.22758 · Cited by 40
Self-citationHypnosis as therapy for functional neurologic disorders
Deeley, Q. (2016) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00047-3 · Cited by 40
Psychologic theories in functional neurologic disorders
Carson, A. J., Ludwig, L., & Welch, K. A. (2016) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801772-2.00010-2 · Cited by 38
Self-citationDosanjh, M., Alty, J., Martin, C., Latchford, G. J., & Graham, C. D. (2020) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12478 · Cited by 35
Ten myths about functional neurological disorder
Lidstone, S. C., Araújo, R., Stone, J., & Bloem, B. R. (2020) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.14310 · Cited by 31
Self-citationA systematic review of paruresis: Clinical implications and future directions
Kuoch, K. L. J., Meyer, D., Austin, D., & Knowles, S. R. (2017) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2017.05.015 · Cited by 30
Functional neurological disorder: psychiatry's blind spot
Keynejad, R. C., Carson, A. J., David, A. S., & Nicholson, T. R. (2017) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(17)30036-6 · Cited by 26
Self-citationRamm, O., Mueller, E. R., Brubaker, L. T., Löwenstein, L., & Kenton, K. S. (2012) · The Journal of Urology · doi:10.1016/j.juro.2012.01.118 · Cited by 21
Is scan‐negative cauda equina syndrome a functional neurological disorder? A pilot study
Gibson, L. L., Harborow, L., Nicholson, T. R., Bell, D., & David, A. S. (2020) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/ene.14182 · Cited by 11
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Stephen, 2019, Healthcare utilization and emergency department/inpatient costs in adult and pediatric functional neurological disorders, Movement Disorders International Congress
- Stanton, 2020, Functional cognitive disorder - functional memory and concentration symptoms
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Understanding Functional Neurological Disorder: Recent Insights and Diagnostic Challenges
Mavroudis, I. A., Kazis, D. A., Kamal, F. Z., Gurzu, I. L., Ciobica, A. S., Pădurariu, M., Novac, B., & Iordache, A. (2024) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms25084470 · Cited by 88
“However, these figures likely underestimate its true prevalence due to underdiagnosis and misdiagnosis, particularly in regions with limited access to specialized care or diagnostic resources [6].”
BackgroundIdentification of biopsychological trait markers in functional neurological disorders
Weber, S., Bühler, J., Vanini, G., Loukas, S., Bruckmaier, R., & Aybek, S. (2023) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awac442 · Cited by 63
Functional neurological disorder: Clinical manifestations and comorbidities; an online survey
Ducroizet, A., Zimianti, I., Golder, D., Hearne, K., Edwards, M. J., Nielsen, G., & Coebergh, J. A. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.jocn.2023.02.014 · Cited by 57
Joffe, A. R., & Elliott, A. (2023) · SAGE Open Medicine · doi:10.1177/20503121231194400 · Cited by 50
Neuropsychological evaluation of functional cognitive disorder: A narrative review
Silverberg, N., & Rush, B. (2023) · Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2023.2228527 · Cited by 29
“Contemporary diagnostic criteria for FCD imply that neuropsychological testing is unnecessary because a diagnosis can be made on the basis of internal inconsistencies identified through clinical interview (Ball et al., 2020; Bennett et al., 2021; McWhirter & Carson, 2022).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Bennett, K., Diamond, C., Hoeritzauer, I., Gardiner, P., McWhirter, L., Carson, A., & Stone, J.
- Affiliations
- Edinburgh Royal Infirmary (GB)
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- Venue
- Clinical Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-01
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 28-36
- ISSN
- 1470-2118 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7850207
- OpenAlex
- W3123764886
- Cited by
- 169
- References
- 52
- Citations by year
- 2026: 40 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 43 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 8
- FWCI
- 4.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Clinical Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Edinburgh Research Explorer (University of Edinburgh) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Cardiovascular Syncope and Autonomic Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Fibromyalgia and Chronic Fatigue Syndrome Research
- Keywords
- conversion disorder, functional tremor, functional dystonia, psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, urinary retention, cauda equina syndrome, diagnostic pitfalls, etiology, multidisciplinary management, emergency medicine
- MeSH terms
- Conversion Disorder, Emergency Service, Hospital, Humans, Nervous System Diseases, Seizures, Tremor, General Practitioners
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
