Cited by 783Posttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchChild Abuse and TraumaPsychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 28 of the 28 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Sex Differences in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Breslau, Naomi·1997·Archives of General Psychiatry

DOI 10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830230082012

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Epidemiologic surveys in the general population documented a higher rate of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in women than in men. To date, the finding has received little scientific attention. This study examines the extent to which sex differences in PTSD might be explained by previously identified risk factors and whether the sex difference in PTSD varied by age at exposure to traumatic events. METHODS: The NIMH-DIS (NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule, Version III Revised) was used to measure DSM-IIIR disorders in a random sample of 1007 young adults. Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate changes in the hazards ratio for PTSD associated with sex when potential risk factors were included. RESULTS: Lifetime prevalence of exposure to traumatic events and number of traumatic events did not vary by sex. The prevalence of PTSD was higher for women than for men exposed to traumatic events (hazards ratio, 2.3; 95% confidence interval, 1.5-3.6). Preexisting anxiety disorders or major depressive disorders played a part in the observed sex difference in PTSD. Family history of anxiety disorder and early separation from parents, although significant risk factors for PTSD in subjects of both sexes, were unrelated to the sex difference in PTSD. The sex difference in PTSD was markedly greater if exposure occurred in childhood than later on. CONCLUSIONS: Posttraumatic stress disorder is more likely to develop in females than in males after exposure to a traumatic event. Susceptibility to PTSD in females might be greater in childhood than after age 15 years. Explanations of the sex difference might involve characteristics of individuals and of the traumatic experiences.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830230082012

Cites

28 of 28 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Nonparametric Estimation from Incomplete Observations
Kaplan, E. L., & Meier, P. (1992) · Springer series in statistics · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-4380-9_25 · Cited by 45,239
Regression Models and Life-Tables
Cox, D. R. (1992) · Springer Series in Statistics · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-4380-9_37 · Cited by 26,297
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey
Kessler, R. C. (1995) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1995.03950240066012 · Cited by 10,379
The Psychology of the Child
Piaget, J., Inhelder, B., & Weaver, H. (1969) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,845
Traumatic Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in an Urban Population of Young Adults
Breslau, N. (1991) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1991.01810270028003 · Cited by 2,544
Self-citation
The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence.
Nolen–Hoeksema, S., & Girgus, J. S. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.424 · Cited by 2,315
Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey, I: lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence
Kessler, R. (1993) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/0165-0327(93)90026-g · Cited by 2,207
Covariance Analysis of Censored Survival Data
Breslow, N. E. (1974) · Biometrics · doi:10.2307/2529620 · Cited by 1,778
Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups.
Norris, F. H. (1992) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.60.3.409 · Cited by 1,527
DSM-III Disorders in Preadolescent Children
Anderson, J. C. (1987) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1987.01800130081010 · Cited by 1,466

Show all 28 references

Sorted by citations

Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults
Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.68.5.748 · Cited by 5,243
Gender differences in anxiety disorders: Prevalence, course of illness, comorbidity and burden of illness
McLean, C. P., Asnaani, A., Litz, B. T., & Hofmann, S. G. (2011) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.03.006 · Cited by 2,519
Trauma and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the Community: The 1996 Detroit Area Survey of Trauma
Breslau, N., Kessler, R. C., Chilcoat, H. D., Schultz, L. R., Davis, G. C., & Andreski, P. (1998) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.55.7.626 · Cited by 2,407
Self-citation
Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research.
Tolin, D. F., & Foa, E. B. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.959 · Cited by 2,197
Traumatic Events and Posttraumatic Stress in Childhood
Copeland, W., Keeler, G. P., Angold, A. C., & Costello, E. J. (2007) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.577 · Cited by 1,643
Gender differences in depression
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2001) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00142 · Cited by 1,474
Disorders of extreme stress: The empirical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma
van der Kolk, B. A., Roth, S., Pelcovitz, D., Sunday, S., & Spinazzola, J. (2005) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20047 · Cited by 1,284
Gender differences in posttraumatic stress disorder.
Olff, M., Langeland, W., Draijer, N., & Gersons, B. P. R. (2007) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.2.183 · Cited by 1,058
Previous Exposure to Trauma and PTSD Effects of Subsequent Trauma: Results From the Detroit Area Survey of Trauma
Breslau, N., Chilcoat, H. D., Kessler, R. C., & Davis, G. C. (1999) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.156.6.902 · Cited by 966
Self-citation
Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in a National Sample of Adolescents
McLaughlin, K. A., Koenen, K. C., Hill, E. D., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Kessler, R. C. (2013) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.011 · Cited by 809
The Epidemiology of Trauma, PTSD, and Other Posttrauma Disorders
Breslau, N. (2009) · Trauma, Violence, & Abuse · doi:10.1177/1524838009334448 · Cited by 810
Self-citation
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Trauma in Youth in Juvenile Detention
Abram, K. M., Teplin, L. A., Charles, D. R., Longworth, S. L., McClelland, G. M., & Dulcan, M. K. (2004) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.4.403 · Cited by 803
Post-traumatic stress disorder: findings from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being
CREAMER, M., Burgess, P. M., & McFARLANE, A. C. (2001) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291701004287 · Cited by 794
Posttraumatic stress disorder: a state-of-the-science review
Nemeroff, C. B., Bremner, J. D., Foa, E. B., Mayberg, H. S., North, C. S., & Stein, M. B. (2006) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2005.07.005 · Cited by 675
Treatment for PTSD Related to Childhood Abuse: a Randomized Controlled Trial
Cloitre, M., Stovall-McClough, K. C., Nooner, K., Zorbas, P., Cherry, S., Jackson, C. L., Gan, W., & Petkova, E. (2010) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09081247 · Cited by 642
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Trauma Exposure and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms: A Twin Study
Stein, M. B., Jang, K. L., Taylor, S. J., Vernon, P. A., & Livesley, W. J. (2002) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.10.1675 · Cited by 602
Trauma exposure and post‐traumatic stress disorder in the general population
Frans, Ö., Rimmö, P. ‐., Åberg, L., & Fredrikson, M. (2005) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2004.00463.x · Cited by 580
Disturbed dreaming, posttraumatic stress disorder, and affect distress: A review and neurocognitive model.
Levin, R., & Nielsen, T. A. (2007) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.3.482 · Cited by 554
A Meta-Analysis of Risk Factors for Combat-Related PTSD among Military Personnel and Veterans
Xue, C., Ge, Y., Tang, B., Liu, Y., Kang, P., Wang, M., & Zhang, L. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120270 · Cited by 578
Trauma exposure and stress-related disorders in inner city primary care patients
Gillespie, C. F., Bradley, B., Mercer, K., Smith, A. K., Conneely, K. N., Gapen, M., Weiss, T., Schwartz, A. C., Cubells, J. F., & Ressler, K. J. (2009) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.05.003 · Cited by 521
Acute stress disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression in disaster or rescue workers
Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., & Wang, L. (2004) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1370 · Cited by 515
Early experience and the development of stress reactivity and regulation in children
Loman, M. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2009) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.05.007 · Cited by 533
The scientific legacy of Sigmund Freud: Toward a psychodynamically informed psychological science.
Westen, D. (1998) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.3.333 · Cited by 448
Posttraumatic stress symptoms and health-related quality of life: a two year follow up study of injury treated at the emergency department
Haagsma, J. A., Polinder, S., Olff, M., Toet, H., Bonsel, G. J., & van Beeck, E. F. (2012) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-12-1 · Cited by 431
Sex differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: A quantitative review of 25 years of research
Tolin, D. F., & Foa, E. B. (2008) · Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy · doi:10.1037/1942-9681.s.1.37 · Cited by 376
Sex differences in anxiety and emotional behavior
Donner, N. C., & Lowry, C. A. (2013) · Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00424-013-1271-7 · Cited by 379
Sex differences in anxiety disorders: Interactions between fear, stress, and gonadal hormones
Maeng, L. Y., & Milad, M. R. (2015) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2015.04.002 · Cited by 406
Posttraumatic stress disorder following medical illness and treatment
Tedstone, J. E., & Tarrier, N. (2003) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(03)00031-x · Cited by 370
Posttraumatic stress disorder and risk for coronary heart disease: A meta-analytic review
Edmondson, D. E., Kronish, I. M., Shaffer, J. A., Falzon, L., & Burg, M. M. (2013) · American Heart Journal · doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2013.07.031 · Cited by 382
The relationship between stress induced cortisol levels and memory differs between men and women
Wolf, O. T., Schommer, N. C., Hellhammer, D. H., McEwen, B. S., & Kirschbaum, C. (2001) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/s0306-4530(01)00025-7 · Cited by 362
Gender differences in susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder
Stein, M. B., Walker, J. R., & Forde, D. R. (2000) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00098-4 · Cited by 356
Acute Stress Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Depression in Disaster or Rescue Workers
Talbott, J. A. (2006) · Yearbook of Psychiatry and Applied Mental Health · doi:10.1016/s0084-3970(08)70138-5 · Cited by 347
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Female Veterans
Dobie, D. J., Kivlahan, D. R., Maynard, C. C., Bush, K. R., Davis, T. M., & Bradley, K. A. (2004) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.164.4.394 · Cited by 342
Sex differences in hippocampal cognition and neurogenesis
Yagi, S., & Galea, L. A. M. (2018) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-018-0208-4 · Cited by 371
An Overview of 9/11 Experiences and Respiratory and Mental Health Conditions among World Trade Center Health Registry Enrollees
Farfel, M. R., DiGrande, L., Brackbill, R. M., Prann, A., Cone, J. E., Friedman, S. M., Walker, D. J., Pezeshki, G., Thomas, P. A., Galea, S., et al. (2008) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-008-9317-4 · Cited by 340
Posttraumatic stress disorder in the primary care medical setting
Stein, M. B., McQuaid, J. R., Pedrelli, P., Lenox, R., & McCahill, M. E. (2000) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0163-8343(00)00080-3 · Cited by 344
A Starring Role for Microglia in Brain Sex Differences
Lenz, K. M., & McCarthy, M. M. (2015) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858414536468 · Cited by 342
Maternal, not paternal, PTSD is related to increased risk for PTSD in offspring of Holocaust survivors
Yehuda, R., Bell, A., Bierer, L. M., & Schmeidler, J. (2008) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2008.01.002 · Cited by 326
Neuroimmunology and neuroepigenetics in the establishment of sex differences in the brain
McCarthy, M. M., Nugent, B. M., & Lenz, K. M. (2017) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn.2017.61 · Cited by 322
Psychological problems following ICU treatment*
Scragg, P., Jones, A., & Fauvel, N. (2001) · Anaesthesia · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2044.2001.01714.x · Cited by 316
Are Females More Responsive to Emotional Stimuli? A Neurophysiological Study Across Arousal and Valence Dimensions
Lithari, C. D., Frantzidis, C. A., Papadelis, C. L., Vivas, A. B., Klados, M. A., Kourtidou‐Papadeli, C., Pappas, C., Ioannides, A. A., & Bamidis, P. D. (2009) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-009-0130-5 · Cited by 343
Current status on behavioral and biological markers of PTSD: A search for clarity in a conflicting literature
Zoladz, P. R., & Diamond, D. M. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.024 · Cited by 339
Psychiatric Morbidity Following Injury
O'Donnell, M. L., Creamer, M. C., Pattison, P. E., & Atkin, C. (2004) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.3.507 · Cited by 306
Sex differences, gonadal hormones and the fear extinction network: implications for anxiety disorders
Lebrón‐Milad, K., & Milad, M. R. (2012) · Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1186/2045-5380-2-3 · Cited by 319
The prospective course of postconcussion syndrome: The role of mild traumatic brain injury.
Meares, S., Shores, E. A., Taylor, A., Batchelor, J., Bryant, R. A., Baguley, I. J., Chapman, J., Gurka, J. A., & Marosszeky, J. E. (2011) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0022580 · Cited by 315
Risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms following critical illness requiring mechanical ventilation: a prospective cohort study
Girard, T. D., Shintani, A., Jackson, J. C., Gordon, S. M., Pun, B. T., Henderson, M. S., Dittus, R. S., Bernard, G. R., & Ely, E. W. (2007) · Critical Care · doi:10.1186/cc5708 · Cited by 286
Gender Differences in Long-Term Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Outcomes after Major Trauma: Women Are At Higher Risk of Adverse Outcomes than Men
Holbrook, T. L., Hoyt, D. B., Stein, M. B., & Sieber, W. J. (2002) · The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care · doi:10.1097/00005373-200211000-00012 · Cited by 270
Chronic Social Instability Induces Anxiety and Defective Social Interactions Across Generations
Saavedra-Rodríguez, L., & Feig, L. A. (2012) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.035 · Cited by 274
Post-traumatic stress disorder vs traumatic brain injury
Bryant, R. (2011) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.31887/dcns.2011.13.2/rbryant · Cited by 268
Posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder-like symptoms and mild traumatic brain injury
Kennedy, J. E. (2007) · The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development · doi:10.1682/jrrd.2006.12.0166 · Cited by 266
Downregulation of BDNF mRNA in the Hippocampal Dentate Gyrus after Re-exposure to Cues Previously Associated with Footshock,
Rasmusson, A. M. (2002) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(02)00286-5 · Cited by 265
Defeat is a major stressor in males while social instability is stressful mainly in females: towards the development of a social stress model in female rats
Haller, J., Fuchs, E., Halász, J., & Makara, G. B. (1999) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/s0361-9230(99)00087-8 · Cited by 256
Incidence and Prediction of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms in Severely Injured Accident Victims
Schnyder, U., Moergeli, H., Klaghofer, R., & Buddeberg, C. (2001) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.4.594 · Cited by 255
Risk factors for chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in SARS survivors
Mak, I. W. C., Chu, C., Pan, P. C., Yiu, M. G. C., Ho, S. C., & Chan, V. L. (2010) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2010.07.007 · Cited by 248
Patterns of emotion regulation and psychopathology
Eftekhari, A., Zoellner, L. A., & Vigil, S. A. (2009) · Anxiety, Stress, & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615800802179860 · Cited by 249
Diurnal salivary cortisol in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder
Carrion, V. G., Weems, C. F., Ray, R. D., Glaser, B., Hessl, D., & Reiss, A. L. (2002) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01310-5 · Cited by 330
Accounting for sex differences in PTSD: A multi-variable mediation model
Christiansen, D. M., & Hansen, M. (2015) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.3402/ejpt.v6.26068 · Cited by 246
A brief Sleep Scale for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index Addendum for PTSD
Germain, A., Hall, M. H., Krakow, B. J., Shear, M. K., & Buysse, D. J. (2004) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2004.02.001 · Cited by 247
Perceived Threat to Life Predicts Posttraumatic Stress Disorder after Major Trauma: Risk Factors and Functional Outcome
Holbrook, T. L., Hoyt, D. B., Stein, M. B., & Sieber, W. J. (2001) · The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care · doi:10.1097/00005373-200108000-00010 · Cited by 241
Interpersonal trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in patients with severe mental illness: Demographic, clinical, and health correlates.
Mueser, K. T., Salyers, M. P., Rosenberg, S. D., Goodman, L. A., Essock, S. M., Osher, F. C., Swartz, M. S., Butterfield, M. I., & 5 Site Health and Risk Study Research Committee (2004) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a007067 · Cited by 237
Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD and depression symptoms reduces risk for future intimate partner violence among interpersonal trauma survivors
Iverson, K. M., Gradus, J. L., Resick, P. A., Suvak, M. K., Smith, K. F., & Monson, C. M. (2011) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0022512 · Cited by 236
Screening for post-traumatic stress disorder in female Veteran’s Affairs patients: validation of the PTSD checklist
Dobie, D. J., Kivlahan, D. R., Maynard, C. C., Bush, K. R., McFall, M., Epler, A. J., & Bradley, K. A. (2002) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0163-8343(02)00207-4 · Cited by 242
Challenges and Successes in Dissemination of Evidence-Based Treatments for Posttraumatic Stress
Foa, E. B., Gillihan, S. J., & Bryant, R. A. (2013) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100612468841 · Cited by 240
Gender Differences in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder After Motor Vehicle Accidents
Fullerton, C. S., Ursano, R. J., Epstein, R. S., Crowley, B., Vance, K., Kao, T., Dougall, A. L., & Baum, A. E. (2001) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.158.9.1486 · Cited by 223
Single-Prolonged Stress: A Review of Two Decades of Progress in a Rodent Model of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
Lisieski, M. J., Eagle, A. L., Conti, A. C., Liberzon, I., & Perrine, S. A. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00196 · Cited by 233
Animal models of PTSD: a challenge to be met
Richter‐Levin, G., Stork, O., & Schmidt, M. V. (2018) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-018-0272-5 · Cited by 236
Common heritable contributions to low-risk trauma, high-risk trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and major depression
Sartor, C. E. (2012) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.1385 · Cited by 212
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Manhattan, New York City, After the September 11th Terrorist Attacks
Galea, S. (2002) · Journal of Heredity · doi:10.1093/jurban/79.3.340 · Cited by 213
Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in people with schizophrenia.
Resnick, S. G., Bond, G. R., & Mueser, K. T. (2003) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.112.3.415 · Cited by 209
The weaker sex? Gender and post‐traumatic stress disorder
Gavranidou, M., & Rosner, R. (2003) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.10103 · Cited by 224
Posttraumatic disorders following injury: an empirical and methodological review.
O'Donnell, M., Creamer, M., Bryant, R., Schnyder, U., & Shalev, A. (2003) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/s0272-7358(03)00036-9 · Cited by 210
Anxiety disorders in women
Pigott, T. A. (2003) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s0193-953x(03)00040-6 · Cited by 210
Post-traumatic stress disorder: The role of trauma, pre-existing psychiatric disorders, and gender
Hapke, U., Schumann, A., Rumpf, H.-J., John, U., & Meyer, C. (2006) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-006-0654-6 · Cited by 201
Determinants of the development of post-traumatic stress disorder, in the general population
Perrin, M., Vandeleur, C. L., Castelao, E., Rothen, S., Glaus, J., Vollenweider, P., & Preisig, M. (2014) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-013-0762-3 · Cited by 197
Is traumatic stress a vulnerability factor for women with substance use disorders?
Hien, D. A., Cohen, L. J., & Campbell, A. N. C. (2005) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.05.006 · Cited by 207
The effect of post‐natal symptoms of post‐traumatic stress and depression on the couple's relationship and parent–baby bond
Parfitt, Y., & Ayers, S. (2008) · Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology · doi:10.1080/02646830802350831 · Cited by 196
Full and partial PTSD among earthquake survivors in rural Taiwan
Lai, T.-J., Chang, C., Connor, K. M., Lee, L.-C., & Davidson, J. R. T. (2003) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2003.08.005 · Cited by 193
The impact of resource loss and traumatic growth on probable PTSD and depression following terrorist attacks
Hobfoll, S. E., Tracy, M., & Galea, S. (2006) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20166 · Cited by 211
The Role of Peritraumatic Dissociation and Gender in the Association Between Trauma and Mental Health in a Palestinian Community Sample
Punamäki, R., Komproe, I. H., Qouta, S., El‐Masri, M., & de Jong, J. T. V. M. (2005) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.3.545 · Cited by 192
Long-Term Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Persists after Major Trauma in Adolescents: New Data on Risk Factors and Functional Outcome
Holbrook, T. L., Hoyt, D. B., Coimbra, R. S. M., Potenza, B. M., Sise, M. J., & Anderson, J. P. (2005) · The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care · doi:10.1097/01.ta.0000159247.48547.7d · Cited by 190
Trauma and posttraumatic stress symptoms predict alcohol and other drug consequence trajectories in the first year of college.
Read, J. P., Colder, C. R., Merrill, J. E., Ouimette, P. C., White, J. W., & Swartout, A. G. (2012) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028210 · Cited by 197
The Psychological Impact of Terrorism: An Epidemiologic Study of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and Associated Factors in Victims of the 1995–1996 Bombings in France
Verger, P., Dab, W., Lamping, D. L., Loze, J.-Y., Deschaseaux, C., Abenhaim, L. L., & Rouillon, F. (2004) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.8.1384 · Cited by 186
Randomized clinical trial of brief eclectic psychotherapy for police officers with posttraumatic stress disorder
Gersons, B. P. R., Carlier, I. V. E., Lamberts, R. D., & van der Kolk, B. A. (2000) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/a:1007793803627 · Cited by 193
Increased pituitary and adrenal reactivity in premenopausal women with posttraumatic stress disorder
Rasmusson, A. M., Lipschitz, D. S., Wang, S., Hu, S., Vojvoda, D., Bremner, J. D., Southwick, S. M., & Charney, D. S. (2001) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01264-1 · Cited by 184
A meta-analysis of perceptions of defeat and entrapment in depression, anxiety problems, posttraumatic stress disorder, and suicidality
Siddaway, A. P., Taylor, P. J., Wood, A. M., & Schulz, J. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.05.046 · Cited by 198
Stress Differentially Modulates Fear Conditioning in Healthy Men and Women
Jackson, E. D., Payne, J. D., Nadel, L., & Jacobs, W. J. (2005) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.08.002 · Cited by 181
Genetics of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Review and Recommendations for Genome-Wide Association Studies
Cornelis, M. C., Nugent, N. R., Amstadter, A. B., & Koenen, K. C. (2010) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-010-0126-6 · Cited by 183
Cocaine Dependence with and without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Comparison of Substance Use, Trauma History and Psychiatric Comorbidity
Back, S. E., Dansky, B. S., Coffey, S. F., Saladin, M. E., Sonne, S. C., & Brady, K. T. (2000) · American Journal on Addictions · doi:10.1080/10550490050172227 · Cited by 181
The Differential Impact of PTSD and Depression on HIV Disease Markers and Adherence to HAART in People Living with HIV
Boarts, J. M., Sledjeski, E. M., Bogart, L. M., & Delahanty, D. L. (2006) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-006-9069-7 · Cited by 175
Understanding posttraumatic stress disorder-related symptoms after critical care: The early illness amnesia hypothesis*
Granja, C., Gomes, E., Amaro, A., Ribeiro, O., Jones, C., Carneiro, A., & Costa‐Pereira, A. (2008) · Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1097/ccm.0b013e318186a3e7 · Cited by 175
Females do not express learned helplessness like males do
Dalla, C., Edgecomb, C., Whetstone, A. S., & Shors, T. J. (2008) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301533 · Cited by 174
Sex differences in symptoms of posttraumatic stress: does culture play a role
Norris, F. H., Perilla, J. L., Ibañez, G. E., & Murphy, A. D. (2001) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/a:1007851413867 · Cited by 174
Psychological aspects of traumatic injury in children and adolescents
Caffo, E., & Belaise, C. (2003) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/s1056-4993(03)00004-x · Cited by 176
Does violence affect one gender more than the other? The mental health impact of violence among male and female university students
Romito, P., & Grassi, M. (2007) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2007.05.017 · Cited by 171
Acute predator stress impairs the consolidation and retrieval of hippocampus-dependent memory in male and female ratsPreprint
Park, C. R., Zoladz, P. R., Conrad, C. D., Fleshner, M., & Diamond, D. M. (2008) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.721108 · Cited by 170
Mental Health in Women Living With HIV: The Unique and Unmet Needs
Waldron, E. M., Burnett‐Zeigler, I., Wee, V., Ng, Y. K. W., Koenig, L. J., Pederson, A. B., Tomaszewski, E. P., & Miller, E. S. (2021) · Journal of the International Association of Providers of AIDS Care (JIAPAC) · doi:10.1177/2325958220985665 · Cited by 174
Posttraumatic stress disorder in response to HIV infection
Kelly, B. J., Raphael, B., Judd, F. K., Perdices, M., Kernutt, G. J., Burnett, P. C., Dunne, M. P., & Burrows, G. D. (1998) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0163-8343(98)00042-5 · Cited by 171
Toward Validation of the Diagnosis of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
North, C. S., Surís, A., Davis, M., & Smith, R. P. (2008) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08050644 · Cited by 166
Effects of Gender and Ethnicity on Duty-Related Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms among Urban Police Officers
Pole, N., Best, S. R., Weiss, D. S., Metzler, T. J., Liberman, A., Fagan, J. A., & Marmar, C. R. (2001) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-200107000-00005 · Cited by 165
An Epidemiologic Study of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Flood Victims in Hunan China
Liu, A., Tan, H., Zhou, J., Li, S., Yang, T., Wang, J., Liu, J., Tang, X., Sun, Z., & Wen, S. W. (2006) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674370605100603 · Cited by 157

Authors: Breslau, N.
Affiliations: Henry Ford Health (US)
Corresponding author: Breslau, Naomi
Venue: Archives of General Psychiatry
Publisher: American Medical Association (AMA)
Published: 1997-11-01
Volume: 54
Issue: 11
Pages: 1044
ISSN: 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1001/archpsyc.1997.01830230082012
OpenAlex: W2023771120
Cited by: 783
References: 28
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 43 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 28 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 32 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 30
FWCI: 18.97
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH048802, MH-48802)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
Keywords: post-traumatic stress disorder, sex differences, women, childhood trauma, trauma exposure, risk factors, anxiety disorders, major depressive disorder, young adults, lifetime prevalence
MeSH terms: Adult, Anxiety Disorders, Child, Depressive Disorder, Family, Female, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Parent-Child Relations, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Comorbidity, Incidence, Prevalence, Proportional Hazards Models

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Sex Differences in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks