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Soft Robotics
Open accessAbstract
This description of “soft robotics” is not intended to be a conventional review, in the sense of a comprehensive technical summary of a developing field. Rather, its objective is to describe soft robotics as a new field—one that offers opportunities to chemists and materials scientists who like to make “things” and to work with macroscopic objects that move and exert force. It will give one (personal) view of what soft actuators and robots are, and how this class of soft devices fits into the more highly developed field of conventional “hard” robotics. It will also suggest how and why soft robotics is more than simply a minor technical “tweak” on hard robotics and propose a unique role for chemistry, and materials science, in this field. Soft robotics is, at its core, intellectually and technologically different from hard robotics, both because it has different objectives and uses and because it relies on the properties of materials to assume many of the roles played by sensors, actuators, and controllers in hard robotics.
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“The combination of soft robotics with e-skin can additionally provide the user with a safe, light, and low complexity mode of actuation without the high cognitive strain associated with its rigid and heavy counterpart.[33–35]”
From Flexible Electronics and Devices as Human–Machine Interfaces for Medical Robotics (2022) · cites this paper as [34]
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Citations
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“SPA is a kind soft actuator that is widely used due to its simplicity and excellent outcome (Whitesides 2018; Zolfagharian, et al. 2020; Yap et al. 2016).”
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Electrical Resistance Response to Strain in 3D-Printed Conductive Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPU)
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Composite Laminar Jamming: Toward Designing a Tunable Stiffness Hybrid Soft Robotic Actuator
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FDM Printing: A Fabrication Method for Fluidic Soft Circuits?
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“Soft robots, fabricated from compliant materials, offer shape adaptability, safer human interactions, and high-impact resilience compared to traditional robots [1].”
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A hybrid gripper with electro-adhesive film for variable friction
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Smart Composites and Hybrid Soft-Foldable Technologies for Minimally Invasive Surgical Robots
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Multi-material FDM 3D Printed Arm with Integrated Pneumatic Actuator
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FluidicOscillation-BasedPneumaticActuationfor SoftLocomotionandGrasping
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“R ecently, soft actuators and robots have attracted increasing interest because of their inherent “ material intelligence, ” 1 – 4 which simpli fi es a wide range of tasks that can hardly be ful fi lled by conventional rigid robots.”
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“Pneumatic actuators remain popular options [3]–[6] but are prone to failure and require bulky hardware components for pressure or vacuum generation.”
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Rodríguez, A., Arcos, J., MÉNDEZ, F., & Bautista, O. E. (2025) · Physics of Fluids · doi:10.1063/5.0271549 · Cited by 2
Development and Validation of Computational Modeling Framework for Tendon-Based Soft Robotics
Dutta, S., Conzola, J., Vikas, V., & Patiballa, S. K. (2025) · Journal of Mechanisms and Robotics · doi:10.1115/1.4069292 · Cited by 2
Fracture toughness of soft solids with Mullins dissipation
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“Examples include tires (Mark et al. 2013), adhesives (Creton and Ciccotti 2016; Yang et al. 2024), soft robotics (Whitesides 2018), actuators (Lee and Konst 2014), stretchable electronics (Keplinger et al. 2013; Kimetal.2020),andbiomedicalimplants(Yasudaetal.”
Shape‐Memory Alloy Torsion Strips for Soft Robotic Manipulation and Morphing
Wu, C., Liu, H., Lin, S., Li, Y., Lam, J., Xi, N., & Chen, Y. (2025) · Advanced Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1002/aisy.202500521 · Cited by 3
Manufacturing and modeling of helix-wrapped pneumatic artificial muscles
El-Sayed, A. E. A., El-Betar, A., & Salem, M. E. M. (2025) · Smart Materials and Structures · doi:10.1088/1361-665x/ae05dc · Cited by 2
“The compliant nature of these robots allows for intrinsic safety, high degrees of freedom, and robust performance in uncertain or dynamic environments [4].”
Rollable-based layer jamming device with variable stiffness for soft wearable applications
Jang, J. H., Choi, H. R., Park, C. H., & Rodrigue, H. (2025) · The International Journal of Robotics Research · doi:10.1177/02783649251376375 · Cited by 2
“While soft robotics is a relatively new fi eld of robotics, it offers a complementary solution to traditional hard robots, extending their capabilities (Hawkes et al., 2021; Whitesides, 2018).”
Auth, P., Conrad, S., Knorr, N., Teichmann, J., Ruppert, S., Speck, T., & Tauber, F. (2025) · Advanced Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1002/aisy.202500430 · Cited by 2
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Doubling the Magnetorheological Effect of Magnetic Elastomers
Fischer, L., & Menzel, A. M. (2025) · ACS Polymers Au · doi:10.1021/acspolymersau.5c00118 · Cited by 2
“Examples are research on soft actuators [2, 4, 5] and soft robotics [1, 2, 6, 7].”
Hung, L.-C., Lai, S.-W., Chen, M.-C., Chang, W., Ou, Y.-K., & Chou, Y.-N. (2026) · ACS Applied Polymer Materials · doi:10.1021/acsapm.5c03738 · Cited by 2
Monolithic soft robotics enabled by programmable materials
Aziz, S., Zhang, X., Salahuddin, B., Khanam, U. S., Annamalai, P. K., Vandi, L., Bell, J. M., Halley, P. J., Zhu, Z., & Nanjundan, A. K. (2026) · Materials Science and Engineering R Reports · doi:10.1016/j.mser.2026.101229 · Cited by 3
Natural Rubber-Based Soft Robotic Gripper with Tunable Performance
Sriring, M., (23811468), T. W., (23811471), S. M., (23811474), S. S., Khanchaitit, P., & Sirisinha, C. (2026) · ACS Applied Polymer Materials · doi:10.1021/acsapm.6c00858 · Cited by 2
Cockreham, C. B., Foley, B. R., Qian, F., & Murialdo, M. (2026) · ACS Omega · doi:10.1021/acsomega.6c02987 · Cited by 2
Emerging Frontiers and Technological Challenges in Soft Robotics
Su, J., An, S., Beccai, L., Chen, L., Chen, X., Duan, S., Etgar, L., Gao, H., Gat, A. D., Ge, Q., et al. (2026) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.6c13106 · Cited by 2
Actuation Characteristics of Basic Body Plans for Soft Modular Pneubotics in Architecture
Andrić, D., Galić, J., & Šerman, K. (2021) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings11030106 · Cited by 2
A Soft Approach to the Exoskeleton Wearable Device for Temporomandibular Disorder (TMD)
Zhang, R., Chen, X., Li, J., Duanmu, D., Yi, J., Lam, J., & Wang, Z. (2021) · IEEE International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft) · doi:10.1109/robosoft51838.2021.9479197 · Cited by 2
Fully soft valve for autonomous pressure control
Zhang, X., Oseyemi, A. E., Shou-yi, Y., & Gu, Q. (2021) · International Symposium on Robotics & Intelligent Manufacturing Technology (ISRIMT) · doi:10.1109/isrimt53730.2021.9596891 · Cited by 2
Proposal of Manufacturing Method for New Passive Elastic Joint and Prototype of Human Phantom
Ikeda, M., Niiyama, R., & Kuniyoshi, Y. (2022) · Journal of Robotics and Mechatronics · doi:10.20965/jrm.2022.p0402 · Cited by 2
A Novel Soft Actuator Based on Mini DC Motor and Supercoiled Polymer Artificial Muscle
Zhu, H., Jin, K., Yang, Y., Wei, Z., Liu, J., Kang, L., & Li, Y. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Real-time Computing and Robotics (RCAR) · doi:10.1109/rcar54675.2022.9872215 · Cited by 2
“With their excellent compliance, safe human-machine interaction capability and good adaptability to unstructured environments, soft robots have received increasing attention from researchers in recent years [1-3].”
BackgroundSecure Food Warehouse Architecture and Automation for Safety of Foods using of Robots
Sharma, R., Saxena, K., Sindhwan, N., & Agarwal, R. (2022) · International Conference on Reliability, Infocom Technologies and Optimization (Trends and Future Directions) (ICRITO) · doi:10.1109/icrito56286.2022.9964899 · Cited by 2
“It includes all food manufacturing processes as its raw material comes from primary materials like agricultural products, seeds, and animals [28].”
BackgroundFlexible soft Pneumatic Bionic Hand Based on Multi-Jointed Structure
Hao, T., Xiao, H., & Liu, S. (2023) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2437/1/012110 · Cited by 2
Modeling and Design of Hinged Tile-Based Curling Air Surface for Morphing Windshield Cowling
Li, T., Luntz, J. E., Brei, D., Alexander, P. W., & Kim, W. (2023) · ASME Open Journal of Engineering · doi:10.1115/1.4062220 · Cited by 2
Review of Dielectric elastomer based application for Soft robotics
Luo, H., Lai, F., Yang, W. L., Xu, Y., Xie, Z., Li, J., Luo, Z., & Chen, H. (2023) · Highlights in Science Engineering and Technology · doi:10.54097/hset.v42i.7092 · Cited by 2
Optically Transparent and Color-Stable Elastomer with Structural Coloration under Elongation
Miyake, D., He, J., Asai, F., Hara, M., Seki, T., Nishimura, S., Tanaka, M., & Takeoka, Y. (2023) · Langmuir · doi:10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c02442 · Cited by 2
Biomimetics and 4D Printing: A Synergy for the Development of Innovative Materials
Salvo, S. D. (2024) · Environmental footprints and eco-design of products and processes · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-51311-4_7 · Cited by 2
Solar-powered miniature robot for on-site oil spill treatment under magnetic steering
Wang, B., Chen, Y., Wang, Y., Ji, F., Li, H., Niu, S., Han, Z., Zhang, Y., & Guo, Z. (2024) · Science China Technological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11431-023-2527-3 · Cited by 2
Sameoto, D. (2024) · Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology · doi:10.3762/bjnano.15.79 · Cited by 2
Palm oil based stretchable piezoresistive strain sensors
Virdyawan, V., Marendra, T., Prakoso, B., Indrawanto, I., & Sumboja, A. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e40791 · Cited by 2
“For this application, a piezoresistive strain sensor ideally fulfils several requirements, including a high gauge factor, high elasticity, high flexibility, and wide detection range [7,10,11].”
Xiao, F., Wei, Z., Wang, H., Li, J., & Zhu, J. (2024) · IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) · doi:10.1109/iros58592.2024.10801545 · Cited by 2
An Extendable and Deflectable Modular Robot Inspired by Worm for Narrow Space Exploration
Tang, S., Yao, J., Yu, Y., & Zhao, G. (2025) · Actuators · doi:10.3390/act14020094 · Cited by 2
Thorat, R. V., Anas, M., Nayek, R., & Chatterjee, S. (2025) · Probabilistic Engineering Mechanics · doi:10.1016/j.probengmech.2025.103763 · Cited by 2
Sustainable Fabrication of Biodegradable Soft Robotic Actuators
Braganza, C., Philamore, H., & Conn, A. T. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft) · doi:10.1109/robosoft63089.2025.11020886 · Cited by 2
“The flexibility of these materials allow soft robots to exhibit enhanced dexterity, adaptability, and resilience, making them suitable for applications like human-robot interaction [2] and medical devices [3, 4].”
Autonomous lifting: Swelling-activated 3D-printed actuators
Levin, M., Hanuhov, T., & Cohen, N. (2025) · Sensors and Actuators A Physical · doi:10.1016/j.sna.2025.116971 · Cited by 2
Warmington, B., Rossiter, J. M., & Gadêlha, H. (2026) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2025.0438 · Cited by 2
Mechanically Programmable Jamming Based on Articulated Mesh Structures for Variable Stiffness Robots
Gao, G., Liang, J., & Liarokapis, M. V. (2022) · IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) · doi:10.1109/iros47612.2022.9981272 · Cited by 2
“complex control algorithms and sophisticated proprioception systems are needed to position the robot accurately to perform the given task [1].”
BackgroundHistory, Current Situation, and Future of Soft Robotics
Hosoda, K. (2019) · Journal of the Robotics Society of Japan · doi:10.7210/jrsj.37.7 · Cited by 2
Applications of elastomer blends and composites
Kumar, S., Krishnan, S., & Mohanty, S. (2022) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-85832-8.00003-1 · Cited by 2
Indenting viscoelastic thin layers: A numerical assessment
Putignano, C., & Carbone, G. (2022) · Mechanics Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.mechrescom.2022.104011 · Cited by 2
Yasuoka, H., Takahashi, K. Z., & Aoyagi, T. (2023) · Polymer · doi:10.1016/j.polymer.2023.125789 · Cited by 3
Stretchable Energy Harvesting Device based on Thermoelectric Composite Films
Kim, C. M., & Park, K. (2023) · 대한금속재료학회지 · doi:10.3365/kjmm.2023.61.8.594 · Cited by 2
How to build a synthetic digestive system for Marvel's Vision
Tauber, F., & Fitzgerald, B. W. (2021) · Superhero Science and Technology · doi:10.24413/sst.2021.2.5636 · Cited by 2
Shape-shifting microgel automata controlled by DNA sequence instructionsPreprint
Shi, R., Chen, K.-L., Fern, J., Deng, S., Liu, Y., Scalise, D., Huang, Q., Cowan, N. J., Gracias, D. H., & Schulman, R. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.09.21.508918 · Cited by 2
Editorial: Design, modeling and control of kinematically redundant robots
Lee, Y., Virgala, I., Sadati, S. M. H., & Falotico, E. (2024) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2024.1399217 · Cited by 2
“Controlling soft robots is difficult because their shapes are complex and their configuration spaces are high-dimensional (Whitesides, 2018).”
BackgroundFabrication of spin crossover nanocomposites and devices for electromechanical applications
Piedrahita‐Bello, M. (2020) · doi:10.70675/93f6db0czb4c7z4549zad09zeed749db01f6 · Cited by 2
Gariya, N., & Kumar, P. (2023) · Lecture notes in mechanical engineering · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-3033-3_43 · Cited by 1
A bio-inspired strategy inspired by an elephant trunk to grip granules
Chen, J. (2024) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2798/1/012035 · Cited by 1
“These solutions include the utilization of conveyor belts, magnetic suction, and the creation of different types of mechanical grippers [1].”
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Pilch, S., Klug, D., & Sawodny, O. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics (AIM) · doi:10.1109/aim55361.2024.10637105 · Cited by 1
“Pneumatic actuators are lightweight, inexpensive and can be implemented easily [4], [5].”
BackgroundMolecular adsorption induces normal stresses at frictional interfaces of hydrogels
Ciapa, L., Tran, Y., Frétigny, C., Chateauminois, A., & Verneuil, E. (2025) · Soft Matter · doi:10.1039/d4sm01439a · Cited by 1
Embedded Valves for Distributed Control of Soft Pneumatic Actuators
Zuo, R., Mehta, M., Han, D., & Bruder, D. M. (2024) · IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) · doi:10.1109/iros58592.2024.10801494 · Cited by 1
“These benefits, combined with the low cost of fabrication, quick response times, and easy implementation, demonstrate the potential SPAs can offer towards building safe and responsive robots [9], [10].”
Coupled poro-elastic behavior of hyper-elastic membranes
Gehrke, A., King, Z., & Breuer, K. (2025) · Journal of Fluids and Structures · doi:10.1016/j.jfluidstructs.2025.104411 · Cited by 1
A Robotic Hand with Soft Transmission Systems for Automated Operations of Computer Mouse
He, Y., Yan, D., Jin, K., Fang, B., & Li, S. (2025) · Advanced Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1002/aisy.202400966 · Cited by 1
Nakamura, M., Osawa, M., Nakayama, A., IWAMOTO, N., Takashima, S., Masuya, K., & Akiyama, Y. (2025) · Advanced Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1002/aisy.202500292 · Cited by 1
Guo, A., Ji, Z., Yu, S., Xie, W., He, X., & Jin, G. (2025) · Actuators · doi:10.3390/act14090418 · Cited by 1
Auto‐Routing Fluidic Printed Circuit Boards
Kendre, S. V., Wang, L., Liu, H., & Nemitz, M. P. (2025) · Advanced Robotics Research · doi:10.1002/adrr.202500065 · Cited by 1
Foldable Soft Leg‐Assisted Wheel Robot
Yoo, S., Kim, S., Kang, J., Park, H., Lee, S., & Cha, Y. (2025) · Advanced Science · doi:10.1002/advs.202512435 · Cited by 1
Zhang, S., Yong, H., Zhang, J., Chai, Z., Ke, X., Zong, Z., Ding, H., Zhang, Z., Li, K., & Wu, Z. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adz8940 · Cited by 1
“Crosslinked polymer matrix–based elastomers, such as polydimeth-ylsiloxane (PDMS), are widely used in the above fields due to their ease of fabrication and high deformability ( 16 ).”
Kim, S., Seo, H., Kim, H., Lee, S. R., Kim, N.-H., & Shin, D. (2025) · Advanced Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1002/aisy.202500844 · Cited by 1
Modeling a machine-sewable strain–stress sensor using transformers
Muñoz, V., Ballester, C., Copaci, D. S., Moreno, L. E., & Blanco, D. (2025) · Sensors and Actuators A Physical · doi:10.1016/j.sna.2025.117216 · Cited by 1
Huge transverse Maxwell stress in ferroelectric fluids and prototyping of new ferroelectric motors
Tsukamoto, T., & Nishimura, S. (2025) · Communications Engineering · doi:10.1038/s44172-025-00530-2 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Whitesides, G. M.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Whitesides, George M.
- Venue
- Angewandte Chemie International Edition
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018-03-08
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 16
- Pages
- 4258-4273
- ISSN
- 1433-7851 (ISSN-L)
- 1521-3773
- OpenAlex
- W4211124276
- Semantic Scholar
- 4899ed6fef8ac75874a202e3458e4a2c1151f926
- Cited by
- 850
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 77 · 2025: 127 · 2024: 121 · 2023: 140 · 2022: 113 · 2021: 113 · 2020: 88 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 14
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.osti.gov
- Locations
- Angewandte Chemie International Edition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1420570)
- U.S. Department of Energy (# ER45852, DESC0000989)
- Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
- Materials Research Science and Engineering Center, Harvard University (DMR- 1420570, 1420570)
- Hansjörg Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University
- Division of Materials Research (DMR 14–20570, 1420570)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Soft Robotics and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Advanced Materials and Mechanics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Control and Systems Engineering › Robotic Locomotion and Control
- Keywords
- soft robotics, soft actuators
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