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Soft Robotics
Open accessAbstract
This description of “soft robotics” is not intended to be a conventional review, in the sense of a comprehensive technical summary of a developing field. Rather, its objective is to describe soft robotics as a new field—one that offers opportunities to chemists and materials scientists who like to make “things” and to work with macroscopic objects that move and exert force. It will give one (personal) view of what soft actuators and robots are, and how this class of soft devices fits into the more highly developed field of conventional “hard” robotics. It will also suggest how and why soft robotics is more than simply a minor technical “tweak” on hard robotics and propose a unique role for chemistry, and materials science, in this field. Soft robotics is, at its core, intellectually and technologically different from hard robotics, both because it has different objectives and uses and because it relies on the properties of materials to assume many of the roles played by sensors, actuators, and controllers in hard robotics.
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“The combination of soft robotics with e-skin can additionally provide the user with a safe, light, and low complexity mode of actuation without the high cognitive strain associated with its rigid and heavy counterpart.[33–35]”
From Flexible Electronics and Devices as Human–Machine Interfaces for Medical Robotics (2022) · cites this paper as [34]
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“Soft pneumatic actuator is one of category of soft actuator that actuated by using pneumatic which is usually in the form of pressurized air [8].”
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“While there has been previous work attempting to define soft robotics principles [4], [5], these often lack the practical demonstrations and hands-on experience necessary to understand and intuit soft robotic design [6].”
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“Soft actuators are classified based on their modes of movement and the mechanisms driving them, such as the use of cables, smart materials, and pneumatic systems [7].”
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PneuSIC Box: Pneumatic Sequential and Independent Control Box for Scalable Demultiplexing
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“Pneumatic actuation offers fast response times, large force output, wide accessibility of required electro-mechanical components, and the robots remain lightweight [6], [7], [8].”
Regulating Airflow Using Hybrid LCN for Soft Pneumatic Circuits
Kurt, E., Golestani, Y. M., Barmpoutsis, E., Picella, S., Selinger, R. L. B., Overvelde, J. T. B., & Liu, D. (2025) · Advanced Intelligent Systems · doi:10.1002/aisy.202401069 · Cited by 1
Cable-driven inchworm-inspired soft crawling robot
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“This limitation is further highlighted when robotics is expanded beyond manufacturing and industrial automation into domains such as healthcare, field exploration[5], and cooperative human assistance[6] where compliance and versatility are needed [7].”
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Challenges and Opportunities – Future Directions
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“The actuators used in this device are a modified version of the Pneumatic Network Actuator [1] originally developed by Soft Robotics Toolkit [2] and pneu-nets actuator [7].”
MethodInvestigation of mechanical response of a two-dimensional tetrachiral structure
Ришатович, А. Л., & Smolin, I. Y. (2022) · AIP conference proceedings · doi:10.1063/5.0084280
RANCANG BANGUN DAN KARAKTERISASI FEEDING MECHANISM SILIKONE BERBASIS SYRINGE PUMP PADA 3D PRINTER
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BackgroundBending Mechanics of the Soft Pneumatic Single Air Chamber Bending ActuatorPreprint
Gariya, N., Asrani, A., Kumar, S., & Nautiyal, H. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2954668/v1
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Wang, R., & Cheng, C. L. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3163506/v1
Soft Architecture: Application of Soft Robotics in the Design Responsive-Interactive Architecture
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Machine Learning Based Characterization of a Waterproofed Soft Multi-Directional Force Sensor
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Kinetic Theory of Rectangular Soft Electromagnetic Actuators Driven by the Laplace ForcePreprint
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Flexible Ferrofluid as Soft Robotic Agents
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Control and Actuation Optimization of Hyper-Vacuum Artificial Muscles
Coutinho, A., & Rodrigue, H. (2023) · International Conference on Control, Automation and Systems (ICCAS) · doi:10.23919/iccas59377.2023.10317057
“This unique characteristic makes them highly promising for the development of human-friendly robots that can be utilized in various domestic and industrial settings [1,2].”
BackgroundChemistry: Necessary for Sustainable Technology, but Not Sufficient
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Background Material Identification Using a Soft Robot
Jeong, N. S., Lee, W., Jeong, S., Mahendran, A. N., & Vikas, V. (2023) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics13010078
Sentinels for the Identification of Pollution in Domains with Missing Data
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“Another uses elastomers and other materials that conform to the shape of one’s finger and change its geometry [13]–[15].”
BackgroundDielectrophoretic Elastomer Actuators for Soft Pneumatic Pumps
Xu, C., Faul, C. F. J., Taghavi, M., & Rossiter, J. M. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft) · doi:10.1109/robosoft60065.2024.10522051
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Editorial for the Special Issue on Soft Actuators: Design, Fabrication and Applications
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4D printing of hydrogel soft actuators
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Design of a Pneumatically Driven 3D-Printed Under-Actuated Soft Robot with Programmable Stiffness
Mustafa, Z., & Türkseven, M. (2024) · IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) · doi:10.1109/iros58592.2024.10802121
“A promising approach in this direction is to utilize soft active materials to enable reprogrammable stiffness actuators [4][5].”
Untethered Soft Thin-Film Motor for Portable Human-Machine Interface
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Modeling a Machine-Sewable Strain-Stress Sensor Using TransformersPreprint
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Soft Linear Actuator Utilizing Electrically Vibrating Threads
Kobayashi, R., Nabae, H., Endo, G., & Suzumori, K. (2025) · IEEE/SICE International Symposium on System Integration (SII) · doi:10.1109/sii59315.2025.10870937
“In fact, there are many examples where making the robot itself flexible has allowed the body’s flexibility to adapt to objects and the surrounding environment [2][3][4].”
A Soft Robotics Approach to Prosthetic Hands: Integrating 3D Printing Techniques and Embedded Vision
Khan, W. A., Farooq, U., Zeb, A., Awais, I., Tariq, M. Q., & Tiwana, M. I. (2024) · International Conference on Robotics and Automation in Industry (ICRAI) · doi:10.1109/icrai62391.2024.10894254
“Soft Robotics [18] is an emerging field in robotics, that has demonstrated great potential to tackle limitations of current hand prostheses.”
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Mold liners produced by incremental sheet forming
Kang, P., Wadman, B., Ehmann, K. F., & Cao, J. (2025) · CIRP Annals · doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2025.03.043
A Bistable Valve for Pneumatic Control
Ge, H., & Conn, A. T. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft) · doi:10.1109/robosoft63089.2025.11020946
“Soft robotics can play an important part of technological development, as humans and machines work together more closely [1].”
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Crystal hydrogels: Strategies, properties, and applications
Liu, Q., Xiong, X., Ahmed, N., Tang, P., & Cui, J. (2025) · Chinese Chemical Letters · doi:10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111707
Soft Robot Palmar Gripper for Raw Chicken Part Handling
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LCD 3D Printing of a Normally Closed Fluidic Transistor via Additive Assembly
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“Traditional fabrication of soft robotic systems hinges on silicone molding processes, restricting device sophistication and manufacturing utility [5].”
Geared Pinch Roller Mechanism-Flexible Drive Mechanism to Suppress Axial Slip Shiftof Flat Tubes
Tamura, R., Onda, I., Abe, K., WATANABE, M., Watanabe, T., & Tadakuma, K. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation (ICMA) · doi:10.1109/icma65362.2025.11120616
“Research on flexible actuators utilizing fluidic methods is progressing, taking advantage of their high power-to-weight ratios [4].”
Spatial Curve Approximation for Pneumatic Actuators: A Comparative Study of Spiral and Spline Models
Schreiber, F., & Manns, M. (2025) · Procedia CIRP · doi:10.1016/j.procir.2025.08.114
Supernumerary Wearable Soft Manipulator With Modularized Origami Structures
Kim, J.-H., & Cha, Y. (2025) · IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics · doi:10.1109/tmech.2025.3602384
Lu, R., Yuan, Y., Yu, H., Sun, J., Tian, X., Cai, C., & Zhang, Y. (2025) · Polymer Engineering and Science · doi:10.1002/pen.70185
“Flexible strain sensors have been widely used in many fields such as human health detection [1–4], electronic skin [5, 6], and soft robotics [7, 8] due to their stretchability, high mechanical toughness, wide strain range, and high sensitivity.”
Guttenplan, A. P. M., Robertson, J. W. F., & Reyes, D. R. (2025) · Micromachines · doi:10.3390/mi16111282
“PDMS is also used in the creation of pneumatically actuated “soft robotic” systems [7], including those which incorporate electronic sensors [8].”
Target Handling Modalities with Obstacle Avoidance for Planar Soft Growing Manipulator Design
Nurcan, O., Astar, A., Kalafatlar, O., & Stroppa, F. (2025) · IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) · doi:10.1109/iros60139.2025.11245864
“Soft growing robots are an emerging class of robotic systems that aims to overcome some of the shortcomings of traditional rigid robots [1]: handling fragile objects, operating in hazardous locations, fitting into tight spaces, bending at difficult angles, or being cheap and easy to replace [2],…”
Vibration-Reduction Mechanism Based on Layer Jamming for for Hand Tremors in Parkinson's Patients
Yazdinezhad, A., Bagherzedeh, A., Zareinejad, M., & Taghvaeipour, A. (2024) · RSI International Conference on Robotics and Mechatronics (ICRoM) · doi:10.1109/icrom64545.2024.10903575
“Recently, researchers in soft robotics have focused on developing robots made from flexible materials [12-14], promoting safer human interactions and improved adaptability to unstructured environments.”
Customized bending of pneumatic soft robotic arms based on cylinder balloons and constraint tapes
Li, Y., Liu, X., Yao, S., Peng, Y., & Shu, D. (2025) · Sensors and Actuators A Physical · doi:10.1016/j.sna.2025.117422
Stabilizing the buckling instabilities of soft cylindrical shell grippers
Li, W., Tan, Y. H., Wang, Z., Dong, X., & Zhao, H. (2026) · Extreme Mechanics Letters · doi:10.1016/j.eml.2025.102437
Biomimetic soft robotics: reconfigurable pneumatic logic circuits for snake-inspired locomotion
Kuang, Y., Wang, S., Cai, Y., Wang, X., & Li, G. (2026) · Engineering Research Express · doi:10.1088/2631-8695/ae32df
Dimpled frames: Morphing attributes, multistability and feeble memory
Rahman, A., & Celli, P. (2026) · International Journal of Solids and Structures · doi:10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2026.114272
Symmetric Soft Robot with Unassisted Bidirectional Locomotion Driven by Dielectric Elastomer MESAPreprint
Xiang, C., Xi, S., Chen, Y., Niu, Y., Yang, G., He, X., & Tan, X. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6031197
Development of a preliminary prototype robotic gripper inspired by the tentacles of cuttlefish
Attard, D., Saliba, M. A., Mollicone, P., Rochman, A., & Fan, D. (2025) · International Conference on Research and Education in Mechatronics (REM) · doi:10.1109/mecatronics-rem67547.2025.11349526
PCC-Based Forward Kinematics of One-Segment Fluidic Continuum Arm with Granular Jamming
Čakurda, T., Pomin, P., Trojanová, M., & Hošovský, A. (2026) · EAI/Springer Innovations in Communication and Computing · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-01555-6_8
Feasibility Analysis of Using POF Sensors for Finger Movement in a Soft Hand Exoskeleton
Maldonado-Mejía, J. C., Delgado, C. A. N., Cifuentes, C. A., Segatto, M. E. V., & Diaz, C. A. R. (2025) · SBMO/IEEE MTT-S International Microwave and Optoelectronics Conference (IMOC) · doi:10.1109/imoc65414.2025.11365740
“Thus, hand exoskele-tons based on soft robotics have demonstrated their potential to aid in rehabilitation and assist in ADLs, mainly by their ability to perform movements kinematically similar to the natural movements of human joints [4].”
Metadata
- Authors
- Whitesides, G. M.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Whitesides, George M.
- Venue
- Angewandte Chemie International Edition
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2018-03-08
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 16
- Pages
- 4258-4273
- ISSN
- 1433-7851 (ISSN-L)
- 1521-3773
- OpenAlex
- W4211124276
- Semantic Scholar
- 4899ed6fef8ac75874a202e3458e4a2c1151f926
- Cited by
- 850
- References
- 98
- Citations by year
- 2026: 77 · 2025: 127 · 2024: 121 · 2023: 140 · 2022: 113 · 2021: 113 · 2020: 88 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 14
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.osti.gov
- Locations
- Angewandte Chemie International Edition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1420570)
- U.S. Department of Energy (# ER45852, DESC0000989)
- Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
- Materials Research Science and Engineering Center, Harvard University (DMR- 1420570, 1420570)
- Hansjörg Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University
- Division of Materials Research (DMR 14–20570, 1420570)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Soft Robotics and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Advanced Materials and Mechanics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Control and Systems Engineering › Robotic Locomotion and Control
- Keywords
- soft robotics, soft actuators
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