A REVIEW OF KETAMINE ABUSE AND DIVERSION: Review: Ketamine
Open accessAbstract
Ketamine was discovered in the 1960s and released for public use in 1970. Originally developed as a safer alternative to phencyclidine, ketamine is primarily used in clinical settings for analgesia and sedation. In recent years, other uses have been developed, including pain management and treatment of asthma and depression. Clinical use of ketamine causes dissociation and emergence delirium. These effects have led to recreational abuse. Although death from direct pharmacologic effects appears rare, the disinhibition and altered sensory perceptions caused by ketamine puts users at risk of environmental harm. Ketamine has also been implicated in nonconsensual sexual intercourse. Data continue to build that chronic ketamine use may lead to morbidity. Impairment of memory and persistent dissociative, depressive, and delusional thinking has also been reported with long-term use. Lower urinary tract symptoms, including cystitis have been described. Gastric and hepatic pathology have also been noted, including abnormal liver function tests, choledochal cysts and dilations of the common bile duct. S-ketamine, an enantiomer in racemic ketamine, has been shown to be hepatotoxic in vitro. Abstinence from ketamine may reduce the adverse effects of chronic use and is considered the mainstay of treatment. Specialized urine drug testing may be required to detect use, as not all point of care urine drug screens include ketamine.
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Long-term unregulated ketamine use has been reported to cause ulcerative cystitis and memory impairment, although dependence rates among recreational users are relatively low.
“While dependence rates are relatively low amongst recreational users, long-term unregulated use has been reported to lead to issues such as ulcerative cystitis and memory impairment [11].”
From Ketamine in neuropsychiatric disorders: an update (2024) · cites this paper as [11]
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- Authors
- Sassano-Higgins, S., Baron, D., Juarez, G., Esmaili, N., & Gold, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- Rivermend Health; Atlanta Georgia
- Rivermend Health Scientific Advisory Board; Atlanta Georgia
- Corresponding author
- Sassano-Higgins, Sean
- ORCID
- Gold, Mark
- Venue
- Depression and Anxiety
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-06-22
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 718-727
- ISSN
- 1091-4269 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2473163226
- Cited by
- 204
- References
- 134
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 2.47
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Depression and Anxiety (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Toxicology › Forensic Toxicology and Drug Analysis
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Opioid Use Disorder Treatment
- Keywords
- ketamine, recreational drug abuse, drug diversion, dissociation, emergence delirium, memory impairment, urinary tract symptoms, cystitis, hepatotoxicity, esketamine, abstinence, urine drug testing
- MeSH terms
- Anesthetics, Dissociative, Humans, Ketamine, Substance-Related Disorders, Prescription Drug Diversion
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