Developmental changes in baseline cortisol activity in early childhood: relations with napping and effortful control
Abstract
Development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis was examined using salivary cortisol levels assessed at wake-up, midmorning, midafternoon, and bedtime in 77 children aged 12, 18, 24, 30, and 36 months, in a cross-sectional design. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses were used to characterize cortisol production across the day and to examine age-related differences. Using area(s) under the curve (AUC), cortisol levels were higher among the 12-, 18-, and 24-month children than among the 30- and 36-month children. For all five age groups, cortisol levels were highest at wake-up and lowest at bedtime. Significant decreases were noted between wake-up and midmorning, and between midafternoon and bedtime. Unlike adults, midafternoon cortisol levels were not significantly lower than midmorning levels. Over this age period, children napped less and scored increasingly higher on parent reports of effortful control. Among the 30- and 36-month children, shorter naps were associated with more adultlike decreases in cortisol levels from midmorning to midafternoon. Considering all of the age groups together, effortful control correlated negatively with cortisol levels after controlling for age. These results suggest that circadian regulation of the HPA axis continues to mature into the third year in humans, and that its maturation corresponds to aspects of behavioral development.
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Basal cortisol remains at low levels through the preschool period.
“Although the duration of this period is unknown, basal cortisol remains at low levels through the preschool period (Grunau et al., 2004, Watamura et al., 2004).”
From Early life adversity during the infant sensitive period for attachment: Programming of behavioral neurobiology of threat processing and social behavior (2017) · cites this paper as Watamura et al., 2004
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- Authors
- Watamura, S. E., Donzella, B., Kertes, D. A., & Gunnar, M. R.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- University of Minnesota (US)
- Corresponding author
- Watamura, Sarah E.
- Venue
- Developmental Psychobiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2004-10-25
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 125-133
- ISSN
- 0012-1630 (ISSN-L)
- 1098-2302
- OpenAlex
- W1994706471
- Cited by
- 228
- References
- 23
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 8 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 16 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 2.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Developmental Psychobiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (2k02mh000946-06)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH-00946)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Keywords
- salivary cortisol, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, early childhood, circadian rhythm, napping, effortful control, diurnal cortisol rhythm, behavioral development
- MeSH terms
- Arousal, Child Behavior, Child Development, Child, Preschool, Circadian Rhythm, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Individuality, Infant, Internal-External Control, Male, Reference Values, Saliva, Sleep, Temperament, Wakefulness, Infant Behavior
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