The effect of ink dilution and evaporation on the microstructures of catalyst layers in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells
Open accessAbstract
The microstructures of catalyst layers (CLs) in proton exchange membrane fuel cells determine cell performance and durability. Delicate ink preparation processes and coating/drying processes affect the resulting microstructures including active sites, pore networks, ionomer networks and Pt/C networks. This paper reports our recent experimental observations of the effect of ink dilution and evaporation condition on the microstructures. The microstructures of dried ink droplets are presented and compared among different dilution ratios and different evaporation conditions in terms of the spatial distributions of Pt/C particles, ionomers, and pores. The method through which the microstructures are visualized is also introduced in this paper. It is observed that ink dilution ratio and evaporation condition can significantly alter resulting microstructure patterns through affecting viscosity and particle flow patterns during the evaporation. More concentrated solution makes catalyst inks less spread out on a substrate surface, leading to larger droplet height and larger contact angle. Ambient relative humidity has a significant impact on catalyst deposition patterns. Under low relative humidity condition, catalyst particles are concentrated both near the central and the periphery of the droplet; while under high relative humidity, the central part is uniform, and the particles move towards the edge of the deposition, forming a stripe-like structure. This indicates that ink dilution and evaporation is key to the CL microstructure formation and must be properly controlled in order to obtain the quality and consistency of the CLs in fabrication.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
During the solvent evaporation process, the movement, aggregation, or self-assembly of the agglomerates in the ink film occur, determining the final structure of the CL.
“During the solvent evaporation process, the movement, aggregation, or self-assembly of the agglomerates in the ink film occur, determining the final structure of the CL [40,41].”
From Effect of Catalyst Ink and Formation Process on the Multiscale Structure of Catalyst Layers in PEM Fuel Cells (2022) · cites this paper as [40]
The Introduction (page unavailable) says solvent evaporation determines initial catalyst-layer microstructures and affects catalyst-particle movement. Section 3.2 (page unavailable) describes particles moving and accumulating as droplets dry, but does not establish self-assembly or aggregation of agglomerates in an ink film. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAfter solvent completely evaporated, resulting CL surface becomes rougher and distribution of catalyst and ionomer in resulting CLs becomes more inhomogeneous with decreasing solid concentration.
“After the solvent is completely evaporated, the resulting CL surface becomes rougher and the distribution of catalyst and ionomer in the resulting CLs becomes more inhomogeneous with decreasing the solid concentration [40].”
From Effect of Catalyst Ink and Formation Process on the Multiscale Structure of Catalyst Layers in PEM Fuel Cells (2022) · cites this paper as [40]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Evaporation of a Sessile Droplet on a Substrate
Hu, H., & Larson, R. G. (2002) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry B · doi:10.1021/jp0118322 · Cited by 1,520 · see citing works
Litster, S., & McLean, G. F. (2004) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2003.12.055 · Cited by 1,277 · see citing works
Analysis of the Microfluid Flow in an Evaporating Sessile Droplet
Hu, H., & Larson, R. G. (2005) · Langmuir · doi:10.1021/la047528s · Cited by 663 · see citing works
Bhardwaj, R., Fang, X., Somasundaran, P., & Attinger, D. (2010) · Langmuir · doi:10.1021/la9047227 · Cited by 499 · see citing works
Passalacqua, E., Lufrano, F., Squadrito, G., Patti, A., & Giorgi, L. (2001) · Electrochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/s0013-4686(00)00679-4 · Cited by 440 · see citing works
Influence of Nafion loading in the catalyst layer of gas-diffusion electrodes for PEFC
Antolini, E., Giorgi, L., Pozio, A., & Passalacqua, E. (1999) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/s0378-7753(98)00186-4 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Effects of Nafion impregnation on performances of PEMFC electrodes
Lee, S. J., Mukerjee, S., McBreen, J., Rho, Y. W., Kho, Y. T., & Lee, T. H. (1998) · Electrochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/s0013-4686(98)00127-3 · Cited by 398 · see citing works
Experimental and numerical analysis of a three-dimensional flow field for PEMFCs
Li, W., Zhang, Q., Wang, C., Yan, X., Shen, S., Xia, G., Zhu, F., & Zhang, J. (2017) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.03.008 · Cited by 303 · see citing works
Recent progress in performance improvement of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
Gamburzev, S., & Appleby, A. J. (2002) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/s0378-7753(01)00970-3 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Low Pt loading high performance cathodes for PEM fuel cells
Qi, Z., & Kaufman, A. (2002) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/s0378-7753(02)00477-9 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Dependence of optimum Nafion content in catalyst layer on platinum loading
Sasikumar, G., Ihm, J.-W., & Ryu, H. J. (2004) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2003.12.060 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Song, J., Cha, S. Y., & Lee, W. M. (2001) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/s0378-7753(00)00629-7 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Functionally Graded Cathode Catalyst Layers for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells
Xie, Z., Navessin, T., Shi, K., Chow, R., Wang, Q., Song, D., Andreaus, B., Eikerling, M. H., Liu, Z., & Holdcroft, S. (2005) · Journal of The Electrochemical Society · doi:10.1149/1.1904990 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Self-citationOptimum Nafion content in PEM fuel cell electrodes
Sasikumar, G., Ihm, J. W., & Ryu, H. (2004) · Electrochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2004.01.126 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
Gode, P., Jaouen, F., Lindbergh, G., Lundblad, A. O., & Sundholm, G. (2003) · Electrochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/s0013-4686(03)00603-0 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Sessile nanofluid droplet drying
Zhong, X., Crivoi, A., & Duan, F. (2014) · Advances in Colloid and Interface Science · doi:10.1016/j.cis.2014.12.003 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Degradation mechanism of electrocatalyst during long-term operation of PEMFC
Chung, C. G., Kim, L. C., Sung, Y. W., Lee, J., & Chung, J. S. (2009) · International Journal of Hydrogen Energy · doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2009.08.094 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Internal flow in evaporating droplet on heated solid surface
Lu, G., Duan, Y., Wang, X., & Lee, D. (2011) · International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2011.04.039 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
The importance of ultrasonic parameters in the preparation of fuel cell catalyst inks
Pollet, B. G., & Goh, J. T. E. (2014) · Electrochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2013.09.160 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Microstructure changes in the catalyst layers of PEM fuel cells induced by load cycling
Rong, F., Huang, C. L., Liu, Z., Song, D., & Wang, Q. (2007) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.10.006 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-citationModelling CO poisoning and O2 bleeding in a PEM fuel cell anode
Baschuk, J. J., & Li, X. (2003) · International Journal of Energy Research · doi:10.1002/er.934 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Self-citationEffect of dispersion solvent in catalyst ink on proton exchange membrane fuel cell performance
Huang, D.-C., Yu, P.-J., Liu, F.-J., Huang, S.-L., Hsueh, K.-L., Chen, Y.-C., Wu, C.-H., Chang, W.-C., & Tsau, F.-H. (2011) · International Journal of Electrochemical Science · doi:10.1016/s1452-3981(23)18202-2 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Xiong, L., & Manthiram, A. (2004) · Electrochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2004.11.049 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Gas permeability of catalyzed electrodes in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells
Zhao, J. F., Shahgaldi, S., Alaefour, I. E., Xu, Q., & Li, X. (2017) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.10.087 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Self-citationOzden, A., Shahgaldi, S., Zhao, J. F., Li, X., & Hamdullahpur, F. (2017) · Fuel · doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2017.11.109 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citationOzden, A., Shahgaldi, S., Zhao, J. F., Li, X., & Hamdullahpur, F. (2018) · International Journal of Hydrogen Energy · doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.10.209 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationZhao, J. F., Shahgaldi, S., Li, X., & Liu, Z. (2018) · Journal of The Electrochemical Society · doi:10.1149/2.0391806jes · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationTherdthianwong, A., Ekdharmasuit, P., & Therdthianwong, S. (2010) · Energy & Fuels · doi:10.1021/ef901105k · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Zhao, J. F., Ozden, A., Shahgaldi, S., Alaefour, I. E., Li, X., & Hamdullahpur, F. (2018) · Energy · doi:10.1016/j.energy.2018.02.134 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Self-citationShahgaldi, S., Zhao, J. F., Alaefour, I. E., & Li, X. (2017) · Fuel · doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2017.07.035 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Self-citationBonifácio, R. N., Paschoal, J. O. A., Linardi, M., & Cuenca, R. (2011) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2011.01.010 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Biodegradation of High Phenol Concentration in a Membrane Bioreactor
Marrot, B., Barrios-Martinez, A., Moulin, P., & Roche, N. (2008) · International Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering · doi:10.2202/1542-6580.1608 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Chang, Y., Zhao, J. F., Shahgaldi, S., Qin, Y., Yin, Y. S., & Li, X. (2018) · International Journal of Hydrogen Energy · doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.10.157 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Self-citationQin, Y., Yin, Y. S., Jiao, K., & Du, Q. (2018) · International Journal of Energy Research · doi:10.1002/er.4116 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Microstructure changes in the catalyst layers of PEM fuel cells induced by load cycling
Rong, F., Huang, C. L., Liu, Z., Song, D., & Wang, Q. (2007) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.10.007 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationInfluence of sloping baffle plates on the mass transport and performance of PEMFC
Yin, Y. S., Wang, X., Zhang, J., Shangguan, X., & Qin, Y. (2018) · International Journal of Energy Research · doi:10.1002/er.4306 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Shahgaldi, S., Alaefour, I., Zhao, J., & Li, X. (2018) · Fuel · doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2018.04.076 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationZhao, J. F., Shahgaldi, S., Alaefour, I. E., Song, Y., & Li, X. (2018) · International Journal of Hydrogen Energy · doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.01.019 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationXu, Q., Zhang, W., Zhao, J. F., Xing, L., Ma, Q., Xu, L., & Su, H. (2018) · International Journal of Green Energy · doi:10.1080/15435075.2018.1431547 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Self-citationArcot, M. P., Zheng, K., McGrory, J., Fowler, M. W., & Pritzker, M. D. (2018) · International Journal of Energy Research · doi:10.1002/er.4107 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Parametric study of the porous cathode in the PEM fuel cell
Zhang, Z., & Jia, L. (2008) · International Journal of Energy Research · doi:10.1002/er.1471 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Transport mechanisms and performance simulation of a PEM fuel cell
Ren, G.-P., Yu, L., Qin, M.-J., & Jiang, X. (2007) · International Journal of Energy Research · doi:10.1002/er.1360 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
El-Dosoky, M. F. F., Ahmed, M. A., & Ashgriz, N. (2017) · International Journal of Energy Research · doi:10.1002/er.3962 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Preparation of Ultra-Thin Catalyst Layers by Piezo-electric Printer for PEMFCs Applications
Saha, M. S., Paul, D. K., Malevich, D. V., Peppley, B. A., & Karan, K. (2009) · ECS Transactions · doi:10.1149/1.3210761 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Hongsirikarn, K., Mo, X., Liu, Z., & Goodwin, J. G. (2010) · Journal of Power Sources · doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.03.074 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationAn analytical analysis on the cross flow in a PEM fuel cell with serpentine flow channel
Park, J., & Li, X. (2010) · International Journal of Energy Research · doi:10.1002/er.1712 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationZhao, J. F., Shahgaldi, S., Ozden, A., Alaefour, I. E., Li, X., & Hamdullahpur, F. (2018) · International Journal of Energy Research · doi:10.1002/er.4260 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationInfluence of Manufacturing Parameters on MEA and PEMFC Performance
Barrio, A., Parrondo, J., Lombraña, J. I., Uresandi, M., & Mijangos, F. (2008) · International Journal of Chemical Reactor Engineering · doi:10.2202/1542-6580.1533 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Li X. Principles of Fuel Cells. New York: Taylor & Francis Group; 2006.
- Deegan RD. Contact line deposits in an evaporation drop. Phys Rev. 2000;62(1):756-765.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Rabiee, H., Ge, L., Zhang, X., Hu, S., Li, M., & Yuan, Z. (2021) · Energy & Environmental Science · doi:10.1039/d0ee03756g · Cited by 506 · see citing works
The Controllable Design of Catalyst Inks to Enhance PEMFC Performance: A Review
Guo, Y., Pan, F., Chen, W., Ding, Z., Yang, D., Li, B., Ming, P., & Zhang, C. (2021) · Electrochemical Energy Reviews · doi:10.1007/s41918-020-00083-2 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Liu, H., Ney, L., Zamel, N., & Li, X. (2022) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app12083776 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“, molecular dynamic simulation [118] or discrete element method [40].”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationGong, Q., Li, C., Liu, Y., Ilavsky, J., Guo, F., Cheng, X., & Xie, J. (2021) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.1c06711 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Guo, Y., Yang, D., Li, B., Yang, D., Ming, P., & Zhang, C. (2021) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.1c07070 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Advancements in printed components for proton exchange membrane fuel cells: A comprehensive review
da Costa, G. P., Garcia, D. M. E., Nguyen, T. H. V., Lacharmoise, P. D., & Simao, C. D. (2024) · International Journal of Hydrogen Energy · doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.05.072 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Liu, S., Meyer, Q. P.-G., Xu, D., Cheng, Y., Osmieri, L., Li, X., & Zhao, C. (2025) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.5c03610 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationTan, A., Zhao, F. J., Zhang, Y., Li, G., Wu, C. L., Liu, Z., Li, J., & Liu, J. (2024) · Chemical Engineering Science · doi:10.1016/j.ces.2024.120814 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationQuarz, P., Zimmerer, N., Scharfer, P., & Schabel, W. (2024) · Fuel Cells · doi:10.1002/fuce.202300252 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Wang, S., Wang, Q., Deng, X., & Zhu, Y. K. (2024) · International Journal of Hydrogen Energy · doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.04.034 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
A scaling law of particle transport in inkjet-printed particle-laden polymeric drops
Cheng, C., Moon, Y. J., Hwang, J. Y., Chiu, G. T. ‐., & Han, B. (2022) · International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer · doi:10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2022.122840 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Zimmerer, N., Quarz, P., Terhorst, E., Janning, L., Scharfer, P., & Schabel, W. (2025) · Energy Technology · doi:10.1002/ente.202500516 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Vu, T. H. T., Nguyen, M. D., & Ngoc, A. T. (2021) · Journal of Chemistry · doi:10.1155/2021/6649089 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A novel predicting method on degree of catalytic reaction in fuel cells
Pan, M., Li, C., Pan, C., Lei, H., & Huang, H. (2020) · International Journal of Energy Research · doi:10.1002/er.5433 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Liu, P., Yang, D., Li, B., Zhang, C., & Ming, P. (2022) · Membranes · doi:10.3390/membranes12050541 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Su, Y., Yuan, S., Li, J., Feng, Y., Shen, S., Yan, X., & Zhang, J. (2026) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2025.116163 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Zimmerer, N., Quarz, P., Janning, L., Scharfer, P., & Schabel, W. (2025) · Colloids and Surfaces A Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects · doi:10.1016/j.colsurfa.2025.138807 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Optimization of Three-Component Solvent Systems for Scalable Screen-Printed PEM Fuel Cells
Peña, K. J. M., Tsuji, R., Fukuda, T., Tanabe, M., & Ito, S. (2025) · ACS Applied Engineering Materials · doi:10.1021/acsaenm.5c00097 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Song, Z., Yan, C., Zhang, J., & Yang, F. (2025) · International Conference on New Energy System and Power Engineering (NESP) · doi:10.1109/nesp65198.2025.11040270 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kim, K.-D., KIM, J., Kang, B., LEE, S., PARK, J., BAEK, C.-M., & Kim, T. (2026) · Journal of Hydrogen and New Energy · doi:10.7316/jhne.2026.37.4.359
- Authors
- Zhao, J., Li, X., & Liu, Z.
- Affiliations
- University of Waterloo (CA)
- National Research Council Canada (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Li, Xianguo
- Venue
- International Journal of Energy Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2019-08-02
- ISSN
- 0363-907X (ISSN-L)
- 1099-114X
- OpenAlex
- W2964926625
- Cited by
- 20
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2
- FWCI
- 0.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Energy Research (publishedVersion)
- NPARC (submittedVersion)
- INFM-OAR (INFN Catania) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (Discovery Grant)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Fuel Cells and Related Materials
- Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Electrocatalysts for Energy Conversion
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Advancements in Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
- Keywords
- catalyst layer microstructure, proton exchange membrane fuel cells, ionomer distribution, pore network, relative humidity, droplet spreading, contact angle, ink viscosity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
