‘Traditional’ Healers, Speaking and Motivation in Vava'u, Tonga: Explaining Syncretism and Addressing Health Policy
Open accessAbstract
ABSTRACT Bilateral health system development in Tonga is implicated in a misrepresentation of ‘traditional’ healing that has serious implications for the provision of health care. It has strengthened the tendency to homogenise and stereotype a diverse body of healers in counter distinction with biomedicine. The diversity of and syncretism in non‐biomedical local healing practice is little appreciated in policy debates. Addressing the epistemological, social and linguistic context of syncretism in terms sensitive to healers' concerns and conceptualisations is vital to build on the pre‐existing collaborations between health professionals and a diverse body of healers in a country that has experienced a marked shift from communicable to non‐communicable disorders. This paper examines the diversity and syncretism of five of the most popular ‘spirit’ healers in Vava'u, Tonga in terms suggested by healers themselves using the Tongan concept and value of tauhi vaha'a(to evoke and intensify relatedness) as an analytic tool. The creativity implied in healers' socially constitutive use of language with ancestors, relatives, patients, churches and the hospital questions the value of any notion of traditionality and suggests considerable grounds for collaboration.
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This paper argues that Tongan “traditional” healing in Vava‘u is diverse and syncretic, and that policy and economic evaluations misrepresent healers by homogenising them. Using healers’ own terms and the Tongan value of tauhi vaha‘a, it shows healers creatively evoke and intensify relationships with ancestors, relatives, churches, patients, and the hospital, suggesting grounds for collaboration rather than polarisation.
Key findings
- The five most popular “spirit” healers studied differed markedly in remedies, explanations, terminology, and treatment techniques; healers’ practice is better understood through tauhi vaha‘a (evoking and intensifying relatedness) than through fixed categories such as TM/WSM or personalistic/naturalistic causality.
- A National Health Accounts report estimated annual household expenditure on traditional healers at 74.9% of people’s out-of-pocket health expenditures and TOP 37.09 per visit, but the author states this was not representative of popular Vava‘u healers, none of whom made significant material or financial benefit from healing.
- Of 18 healers interviewed in Vava‘u, only one was male; the paper links this to women being easier to ask, more likely to be at home, and usually responsible for young children’s health.
- Tonga’s disease burden has shifted: non-communicable disorders make up 75% of causes of death, type 2 diabetes prevalence was 15.1% with 80% undiagnosed in 2002, and 57.7% of male and 66.7% of female patients consulted traditional healers. Psychiatric services received only 1% of total Ministry of Health spending, about 10% of the WHO-recommended 10%.
Methods
- Ethnographic fieldwork in Vava‘u, Tonga, mainly 1998–2000, with follow-up visits in 2005, 2007, and 2009; the author interviewed 18 healers and focused on five popular healers who could treat tēvolo-caused conditions.
- Participant observation included a quasi-apprenticeship with one healer, Lilopau, over a year; the author also interviewed Lealiki, Pisila, and Siosiofanga at least four times each and worked in collaboration with psychiatrist Dr Mapa Puloka.
- Analysis uses the Tongan concept tauhi vaha‘a as an analytic tool and presents case material, including the treatment of Lupe by Lilopau and later Akosita, to examine syncretism, speaking, and efficacy.
Limitations
- The paper states that ethical requirements not to name healers or villages hindered analysis of how village politics and social cohesion influenced healers’ characteristics.
- The author states he cannot examine here the degree to which healers used particular terms in practice, nor examine in depth the variability of other treatment aspects beyond tulu‘i.
- The paper notes most contact was with Lilopau and Akosita, so by implication the extent of other healers’ creativity and potential for collaboration is less fully known; it is a qualitative, small-sample study without systematic outcome measurement, and efficacy claims rely heavily on healers’ and families’ accounts.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
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Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
5 of 50 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Findingcitation
Dr Mapa Puloka's collaboration demonstrated the wide spectrum of healers was associated with a wide spectrum of treatment from beneficial to outright dangerous.
“Resisting a blanket stereotyping, Dr Puloka's collaboration demonstrated the wide spectrum of healers was associated with a wide spectrum of treatment from beneficial to outright dangerous.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites Puloka 1998 source
- cites Puloka 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Poltorak 2007 source
The “Mental Illness and Interdisciplinarity” section says Dr Puloka sought a model for mental-health services and identifies traditional healers’ treatment efficacy as something to investigate. Our copy does not report a collaboration by Puloka demonstrating that healers’ treatments ranged from beneficial to dangerous (searched: collaboration, beneficial treatment, dangerous treatments). (LLM, conf=0.72)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Interpretationcitation
Tēvolo as cause of sickness is accepted partly because it is a more socially acceptable and less stigmatising explanation than sickness as divine punishment for past wrongdoing.
“In most cases, though, tēvolo as cause of sickness is accepted partly because it is a more socially acceptable and less stigmatising explanation than sickness as divine punishment for past wrongdoing (Poltorak 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Poltorak 2007 source
In “Tēvolo and Mental Illness” (page unavailable), the paper says tēvolo attribution places agency outside the affected person and that treatment removes stigma associated with less favourable explanations. “Stigma: Negotiability, Contestability, and Temporality” describes punishment for past wrongdoing as particularly stigmatizing. These passages support the comparison, but do not establish that tēvolo is accepted for this reason “in most cases.” (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Findingown data
Information from the workshops coupled with case histories of patients in their care enabled greater appreciation of the relationship between attributions of efficacy and stigmatisation.
“Information from the workshops coupled with case histories of patients in their care enabled greater appreciation of the relationship between attributions of efficacy and stigmatisation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
The same healer was many years later discovered to have started adding small amounts of an anti psychotic medication into his remedies in the year after the workshops.
“This same healer was many years later discovered to have started adding small amounts of an anti psychotic medication into his remedies in the year after the workshops.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
One explanation for why so many plants are useful in Tongan medicine is that God fakaivi'i (to give power or ability to, to enable) them.
“One explanation for why so many plants are useful in Tongan medicine is that God fakaivi'i (to give power or ability to, to enable) them.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Findingnone given
Even the most personalistic healers used naturalistic explanations to explain susceptibility or how healing works.
“Even those healers, whose interpretations might be characterised as the most personalistic of all healers, used naturalistic explanations to explain susceptibility or how healing works.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Findingcitation
A phenomenologically inspired approach using the Tongan concept of tauhi vaha'a reveals how intersubjective relations feature more strongly as explanations of the diversity and syncretism of healing practice than structural factors such as 'gender, age, educational background, social status and religious affiliation'.
“A phenomenologically inspired approach using the Tongan concept of tauhi vaha'a (the evocation and intensification of relatedness), reveals how intersubjective relations feature more strongly as explanations of the diversity and syncretism of healing practice than structural factors such as 'gender, age, educational background, social status and religious affiliation' (Jackson 1989(Jackson , 1996(”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Jackson 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Jackson 1996 source
- cites Jackson 1998
- Findingown data
Healers are generalised as a group only when their practice is compared either positively or derogatorily to hospital medicine.
“The only times they are generalised as a group is when their practice is compared either positively, as Akosita does, or derogatorily, by many health professionals, to hospital medicine.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
Even the most popular healers, though they may on occasion be given me'a 'ofa (gifts) in gratitude for their treatments, cannot make a living out of their healing.
“Even the most popular healers, though they may on occasion be given me'a 'ofa (gifts) in gratitude for their treatments, cannot make a living out of their healing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Most 'traditional' healers introduced their practice to the author during fieldwork in Vava'u between 1998 and 2000 in variations of a Christian ethic.
“It was in variations of this Christian ethic that most 'traditional' healers introduced their practice to me during fieldwork in Vava'u between 1998 and 2000.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Tongans are not surprised by the diversity of different potential remedies.
“Tongans are not surprised by the diversity of different potential remedies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Tēvolo caused conditions were not the exclusive concern of any of the five healers.
“Tēvolo caused conditions were not the exclusive concern of any of the five healers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Findingown data
The most widely known healers were described as poto he lea, poto he fakamatala, or ngutu lahi.
“Of all the healers, the most widely known were those who were described in complimentary terms as poto he lea (skilful at speaking/speeches), poto he fakamatala (skilful at explanation) or pejoratively as ngutu lahi (big mouth).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Findingreasoning
In general, similarities in practice and conceptualisations among healers are regarded locally inconsequential to their practice.
“That is not to say that there are no similarities in the practice and conceptualisations of some healers, shared by many other people in Vava'u, but that in general such similarities are regarded locally inconsequential to their practice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In Vava'u, of the eighteen healers interviewed, only one was male.
“Of the eighteen healers I interviewed only one was male.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Findingnone given
At any one time in Tonga, people are creatively combining plants and remedies in new ways as a result of dreams or recommendations.
“At any one time in Tonga, people are creatively combining plants and remedies in new ways as a result of dreams or recommendations.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Plants are constantly being reinvented for new and novel uses as the many remedies for diabetes and heart disease attest.
“Plants are constantly being reinvented for new and novel uses as the many remedies for diabetes and heart disease attest.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingcitation
Healers capable of treating tēvolo caused conditions vary in the degree to which they emphasise personalistic versus naturalistic explanations.
“Within Foster's schema, the explanations of healers capable of treating tēvolo (spirit, ghost) caused conditions varies to the degree to which they emphasised personalistic explanation (those that involved spirits only) and explanations in which there were naturalistic features (typically some capacity of the body that made it more likely for the spirits to affect the person).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Findingreasoning
This allows some healers the author worked with to pick any plant and use it in place of the more appropriate plants, if they are particularly busy or unable to gather the ideal plant, with seemingly no diminution in efficacy.
“This allows some healers I worked with to pick any plant and use it in place of the more appropriate plants, if they are particularly busy or unable to gather the ideal plant, with seemingly no diminution in efficacy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
Lilopau was the only healer who publicly categorised her area of expertise as fakatēvolo.
“She was the only healer who publicly categorised her area of expertise as fakatēvolo.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Lilopau often questioned the use of terms such as pakalava (stroke) and toto mā'olunga (high blood pressure).
“She often questioned the use of terms such as pakalava (stroke) and toto mā'olunga (high blood pressure).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Lilopau, Pisila and Siosiofanga's use of terms contrasted with Lealiki and several older healers who argued that all conditions were essentially fakamahaki.
“Lilopau, Pisila and Siosiofanga's use of terms contrasted with Lealiki and several older healers I interviewed, who argued that all conditions were essentially fakamahaki.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Findingown data
Lupe continued to return to the hospital to be checked and prescribed Nifedipine for high blood pressure even after she was taken to Akosita several weeks after Lilopau's final treatment.
“Lupe continued to return to the hospital to be checked and prescribed the Nifedipine for high blood pressure even after she was taken, several weeks after Lilopau's final treatment, to Akosita.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
From the five healers there is a variety of different ways to tulu'i and its degree of importance.
“From the five healers there is a variety of different ways to tulu'i and its degree of importance with respect to associated treatments.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Findingreasoning
The threat of tulu'i often leads to dramatic behaviour of the affected person who tries to escape.
“It is, thus, the threat of tulu'i that often leads to the dramatic behaviour of the affected person who will often try to escape by running to the bush.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Tulu'i with plants repugnant to tēvolo elicits the most dramatic evidence of the power of tēvolo.
“Tulu'i, with plants that are repugnant to tēvolo, is the procedure that elicits the most dramatic evidence of the power of tēvolo.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Lilopau had the least confidence in biomedical concepts among the five healers.
“Lilopau had the least confidence in biomedical concepts.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Akosita's focus on liquid internal remedies (vai) most resembled in form some of the treatments the hospital gives to patients.
“Her focus on liquid internal remedies (vai) most resembled in form some of the treatments, which the hospital gives to patients.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
As the author's relationship with Akosita developed, she spoke more of preferring to define conditions in terms of the 'sino' (body) and not tēvolo.
“As our relationship developed, she spoke more of how she preferred to define conditions in terms of the 'sino' (body) and not tēvolo.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Bloomfield's translation of fakamahaki as slow to heal is contradicted by several healers' assertions that fakamahaki was characterised by being quick to heal.
“Bloomfield's translation of fakamamahaki as any illness which is slow to heal and assumed to be caused by evil spirits (her translation for tēvolo) (Bloomfield 1986:186), is contradicted by several healers' assertions that fakamahaki was characterised by the fact that it was quick to heal.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Bloomfield 1986:186
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Findingreasoning
Affected people are able to anticipate the arrival of the healer because the tēvolo senses the smell of the plants the healer is bringing.
“Affected people are able to anticipate the arrival of the healer, because of the tēvolo sensing the smell of the plants that the healer is bringing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
In neither Akosita's nor Lilopau's explanation was there any sense of blame on the household.
“In neither explanation was there any sense of blame on the household.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Lealiki saw a tēvolo dressed up as a doctor in the hospital after the birth of her third child when diagnosed with toto'si'is'i (low blood count).
“She saw a tēvolo dressed up as a doctor in the hospital after the birth of her third child when diagnosed with toto'si'is'i (low blood count).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingreasoning
Many people identified Lilopau's practice as the most traditional as it was least accommodating of biomedical concepts.
“Many people identified her practice as the most traditional as it was least accommodating of biomedical concepts.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
All five healers welcomed greater collaboration and recognition of their practice by the hospital.
“All the five healers welcomed greater collaboration and recognition of their practice by the hospital.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Akosita had more contact with people who are familiar with more biomedical and scientific notions of illness and the body.
“Akosita had more contact with people who are familiar with more biomedical and scientific notions of illness and the body.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Bilateral health system development in Tonga has strengthened the tendency to homogenise and stereotype a diverse body of healers in counter distinction with biomedicine.
“It has strengthened the tendency to homogenise and stereotype a diverse body of healers in counter distinction with biomedicine.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Bilateral health system development in Tonga is implicated in a misrepresentation of 'traditional' healing that has serious implications for the provision of health care.
“Bilateral health system development in Tonga is implicated in a misrepresentation of 'traditional' healing that has serious implications for the provision of health care.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Tongan policy representations of healers have been largely informed by dichotomies sharply distinguishing TM from WSM in 'the perception of disease causation'.
“Tongan policy representations of healers have been largely informed by dichotomies sharply distinguishing TM (traditional medicine) from WSM (western scientific medicine) in 'the perception of disease causation' (Finau 1994: 53).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Finau 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Early anthropological research neglected the multiple uses, understandings and on occasion lack of knowledge of the same terms.
“they nevertheless neglected the multiple uses, understandings and on occasion lack of knowledge of the same terms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Early anthropological research typically generalised healers' explanations to give a seeming representative picture of Tongan medicine.
“Such a model was implicitly supported by early anthropological research that typically generalised healer's explanations to give a seeming representative picture of Tongan medicine (see Cowling 1990;Parsons 1984Parsons , 1985)).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites Cowling 1990
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Parsons 1984 source
- cites Parsons 1985
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
These dichotomies contradict most health professionals' familial and pluralistic experience of Tongan medicine from an early age.
“These, nevertheless, contradict most health professional's familial and pluralistic experience of Tongan medicine from an early age.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
The National Health Accounts report estimated an annual household expenditure on traditional healers of 74.9% of people's out of pocket health expenditures.
“The report estimated an annual household expenditure on traditional healers of 74.9% of people's out of pocket health expenditures (Ministry of Health 2004, ii).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ministry of Health 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
The individuality of healers' ways of treating and explaining their treatments suggests that they seek to distinguish themselves from each other.
“The individuality of healers' ways of treating and explaining their treatments suggests that they seek to distinguish themselves from each other.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
Men are relatively inaccessible for healing because of increasing pressure to provide money and food, requiring wage labour or long periods in the bush.
“There is increasing pressure for men to provide money as well as food for their families and church.This means either wage labour or long periods of time in the bush, which makes them relatively inaccessible for healing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Healers also assert the essential unity underlying that distinction.
“They also assert the essential unity underlying that distinction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
In Tongan experience, healers are all different because one comes to request help from them or learn of them through a multitude of different social links.
“Thus in Tongan experience, healers are all different because one comes to request help from them or learn of them through a multitude of different social links.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The possible and potential pharmaceutical properties of plants are overplayed.
“The possible and potential pharmaceutical properties of plants are overplayed (eg Ostraff et al. 2000).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Ostraff et al. 2000 source
- Interpretationreasoning
Because so many people have their own healing remedies in Tonga, the professional distinction is not one Tongans are apt to make.
“Because so many people have their own healing remedies in Tonga the professional distinction is not one Tongans are apt to make.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Healers have always unintentionally protected doctors from litigation by diagnosing poorly treated conditions in the hospital in terms of spirit engagement that does not imply blame of the hospital.
“Healers have always unintentionally protected doctors from litigation by diagnosing poorly treated conditions in the hospital in terms of spirit engagement that does not imply blame of the hospital (Poltorak 2002).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Poltorak 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation
Diagnostic concerns have always been secondary to the central ability to be able to kole tokoni (ask for help) from someone who can help.
“Diagnostic concerns have always been secondary to the central ability to be able to kole tokoni (ask for help) from someone who can help.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The MacPhersons' claim that environmental, structural and personal factors strongly influenced variability in healer's beliefs and practices understated the degree of creativity in healing.
“The MacPhersons' claim that environmental, structural and personal factors strongly influenced variability in healer's beliefs and practices understated the degree of creativity in healing (MacPherson & MacPherson 1990: 11).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites MacPherson & MacPherson 1990
- Interpretationreasoning
Healers' use of tēvolo to explain sickness follows logically from the ability of deceased relatives to cause sickness in living relatives.
“While occasionally contentious, healers' use of tēvolo (spirit, ghost) to explain sickness follows logically from the ability of deceased relatives to cause sickness in living relatives.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
To speak is a socially constitutive act in Pacific Island cultures.
“To speak-as Malinowski (1935) and Firth (1975) established for Pacific Island cultures-is a socially constitutive act.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Malinowski (1935)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Firth (1975)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationcitation
The power of healers resides in part in the degree to which they evoke and intensify relatedness for healing purposes.
“The power of healers, resides in part in the degree to which they evoke and intensify relatedness for healing purposes, which along with its accompanying three other values-Faka'apa'apa (to show deference or respect or courtesy), Toka'i (to consider the feelings or judgement of) and fetokoni'aki (to help one another) (Churchward 1959)-are often used to assert an authentic and traditional Tonganess”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Churchward 1959
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Interpretationreasoning
Healers differ fundamentally from most doctors in that they have to speak with, and in terms understandable and evocative to, their patients.
“Healers differ fundamentally from most doctors in that they have to speak with, and in terms understandable and evocative to, their patients.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
The technique of tulu'i is the most explicitly directed at breaking the sensual engagement of a person with the tēvolo.
“Of all the various techniques of treatment used by healers, the technique of tulu'i (to administer medicine by squeezing the medicine and dripping the resulting liquid) is the most explicitly directed at breaking the sensual engagement of a person with the tēvolo.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
To varying degrees, plant use may be led by religious reasons or popularity rather than actual or attributed pharmacological properties.
“To varying degrees, plant use may be led by religious reasons or popularity rather than actual or attributed pharmacological properties.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The diversity of healers in Vava'u is better characterised by Littlewood's distinction than by Finau's TM/WSM dichotomy.
“This diversity has a quality closer to Littlewood's distinction than that of Finau's TM/WSM dichotomy.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Interpretationcitation
Healers' agentive acts both mimic the TM/WSM and naturalistic/personalistic distinction in their own understandings and presentation of the distinction between spirit caused and non-spirit caused conditions (mahaki /fakamahaki).
“Following Taussig, healers' agentive acts both mimic the TM/WSM and naturalistic/personalistic distinction in their own understandings and presentation of the distinction between spirit caused and non-spirit caused conditions (mahaki /fakamahaki).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
By using the term fakatotokovi, Fangupu evokes and intensifies relatedness to her new Church, current household, and hospital.
“By using the term fakatotokovi she evokes and intensifies relatedness to her new Church, her current household and the hospital from where she is receiving treatment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Interpretationreasoning
The spoken ethic of healers evokes and intensifies their membership to their respective churches.
“The spoken ethic of healers evokes and intensifies their membership to their respective churches.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Interpretationnone given
Healers' insistence that the constituents of their remedies have remained unchanged reflects their engagement with the rhetoric and conflation of traditionality and authenticity.
“Their insistence that the constituents of their remedies have remained unchanged in the transmission from generation to generation reflects their engagement with the rhetoric and conflation of traditionality and authenticity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Interpretationreasoning
The term mahaki in use out of the hospital is less disease in a biomedical sense than a description of a state in which the sufferer is implicated to varying degrees.
“However mahaki can also mean: temperamental or characteristic fondness or liking, 'weakness', craze, addiction and also used to refer to the patient suggests that in use out of the hospital it is less disease in a biomedical sense than a description of a state in which the sufferer is implicated to varying degrees.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
In contrast to remedies, explanations are spoken and therefore more likely to change from generation to generation.
“In contrast to their remedies, explanations are spoken and are therefore more likely to change from generation to generation in response to a host of social circumstances and healers' wish to evoke and intensify relatedness to different people and institutions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Interpretationnone given
It is in their particular explanations for events of sickness that healers most demonstrate their ability to evoke and intensify relatedness within the particular social contexts of the sick individuals they treat.
“However, it is in their particular explanations for events of sickness that healers most demonstrate their ability to evoke and intensify relatedness within the particular social contexts of the sick individuals they are requested to treat.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
- Interpretationnone given
Akosita's and Lilopau's position of confidence within the community was affirmed by their attainment of the role of lay preacher (kau malanga) in the Wesleyan church.
“Akosita's and Lilopau's position of confidence within the community was affirmed by their attainment of the role of lay preacher (kau malanga) in the Wesleyan church.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The case of Lupe's treatment illustrates that, though different in content, both Akosita's and Lilopau's explanations evoke and intensify their relatedness to Lupe's household in their interpretations.
“The case of Lupe's treatment illustrates the extent to which, though different in content, both Akosita's and Lilopau's explanations evoke and intensify their relatedness to Lupe's household in their interpretations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
Lealiki's marriage to a schoolteacher and a dramatic experience of tēvolo in the hospital goes some way to explain her conciliatory explanation which stresses ascertaining the personalistic involvement of an agent and naturalistic measures to conceptualise susceptibility.
“For example, Lealiki's marriage to a schoolteacher and a dramatic experience of tēvolo in the hospital goes some way to explain her conciliatory explanation which stresses ascertaining the personalistic involvement of an agent and naturalistic measures to conceptualise susceptibility.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The strength of Lilopau's influence, her ivi ('power') in local terms, is manifest in taking the ideas she was exposed to and applying them to a much greater degree than other healers.
“The strength of her influence, her ivi ('power') in local terms, is manifest in taking the ideas she was exposed to, and applying them to a much greater degree than other healers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationown data
The other healers, as social members of Vava'u life, are also intensifying relatedness in a similar process, though falling between the two extremes represented by Akosita and Lilopau.
“The other healers, as social members of Vava'u life, are also intensifying relatedness in a similar process, though falling between the two extremes, which Akosita and Lilopau seem to represent.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
While most critical of a biomedical epistemology by diagnosing almost exclusively in terms of tēvolo, Lilopau is probably least likely to encourage critique of the hospital in biomedical terms.
“Ironically, while most critical of a biomedical epistemology by diagnosing almost exclusively in terms of tēvolo, she is probably least likely to encourage critique of the hospital in biomedical terms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Such influence underlies a strong potential brokerage role between biomedical and non-biomedical healing.
“Such influence underlies a strong potential brokerage role between biomedical and non-biomedical healing.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Lilopau countered the intrusion of biomedical ideas by putting her perspective even more forcefully.
“She countered the intrusion of biomedical ideas by putting her perspective even more forcefully.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 82
- May combine two claims. 80
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
FindingcitationSome 80% of the prevalence of type 2 diabetes (15.1%) was undiagnosed in 2002.
“Some 80% of the prevalence of type 2 diabetes (15.1%) was undiagnosed in 2002.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Colagiuri et al, 2002 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationThis increasing resort is the result of wholesale changes in diet and lifestyle in Tonga and most other Pacific islands that marked the shift from communicable to noncommunicable disorders.
“This is the result of wholesale changes in diet and lifestyle in Tonga and most other islands in the Pacific region that has marked the shift from communicable to noncommunicable disorders (Evans et al. 2001(Evans et al. , 2002;;Gani 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked- cites Evans et al. 2001
The Introduction links increased reliance on imported foods across the Pacific to rising noncommunicable diseases, and the Discussion links Tonga’s shift from traditional diets to high rates of diabetes and cardiovascular disease (page numbers unavailable). The paper does not establish the claimed shift from communicable to noncommunicable disorders or document wholesale lifestyle changes across most Pacific islands. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Evans et al. 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Gani 2009
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
FindingcitationThe prevalence of type 2 diabetes has more than doubled since 1973, with 57.7% of male patients and 66.7% female patients consulting traditional healers.
“The prevalence has more than doubled since 1973, with 57.7% of male patients and 66.7% female patients consulting traditional healers (Colagiuri et al, 2002).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked- cites Colagiuri et al, 2002 source
The Conclusions report that diabetes prevalence in Tonga approximately doubled since 1973, from 7.5% to 15.1%. Table 1 lists traditional-medicine use of 57.7% among male survey participants and 66.7% among female participants, but does not identify them as diabetes patients or say they consulted traditional healers. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone givenOne healer in Dr Puloka's seminar who mixed panadol, leaves and 7up as a remedy was clear evidence of the degree of syncretism in healing on the main island of Tongatapu.
“One healer in his seminar who mixed panadol, leaves and 7up as a remedy, was clear evidence of the degree of syncretism in healing on the main island of Tongatapu.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Findingnone givenFew children would have escaped being given various tonics (vai) by local healers or family members at the same time as biomedical remedies.
“Few children would have escaped being given various tonics (vai) by local healers or family members at the same time as biomedical remedies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenDuring the period of Dr Puloka's workshops, a greater number of patients was admitted on the recommendation of healers, most in the months after each workshop, with the effect lasting about a year.
“During this period a greater number of patients was admitted on the recommendation of healers, most in the months after each workshop, with the effect lasting about a year.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataDr Puloka treated patient P under section 9 of the mental health act; he responded well to treatment and the episodes stopped, allowing him to enrol in a tertiary institution.
“Dr Puloka treated him under section 9 of the mental health act.He responded well to treatment and the episodes stopped, allowing him to enrol in a tertiary institution.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingcitationThe estimated figure of TOP 37.09 per visit to a healer was not representative of any of the popular healers the author had worked with in Vava'u, none of whom was making any significant material or financial benefit from their practice.
“The estimated figure of TOP 37.09 (approximately AUS$ 25 or US$18 at 2004 exchange rates) per visit to a healer was certainly not representative of any of the popular healers I had worked with in Vava'u, none of whom was making any significant material or financial benefit from their practice”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites Ministry of Health 2004: 41
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites Poltorak 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenThere are many healers who continue to heal seemingly successfully without receiving a transmission of healing, and some popular healers acknowledge no healing pedigree.
“But there are many healers who continue to heal, seemingly successfully, who did not receive a transmission of healing, and there are some who are popular but acknowledge quietly no healing pedigree whatsoever.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenThe seeming commonality in purpose reflected in healers' explanations of their motivation contrasts with the great diversity in the practice, conceptualisations, personality and personal histories of particular healers.
“The seeming commonality in purpose reflected in healers' explanations of their motivation contrasts with the great diversity in the practice, conceptualisations, personality and personal histories of particular healers.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataAkosita had chosen not to treat in terms of tēvolo, preferring to conceptualise in terms of 'nerves', but would nevertheless treat people who others regarded as influenced by tēvolo.
“One of the most popular healers, Akosita, had chosen not to treat in terms of tēvolo as a following case study demonstrates, preferring to conceptualise in terms of 'nerves' but would nevertheless treat people who others regarded as being influenced by tēvolo.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningHealers' healing knowledges are rarely shared and are specific to their families.
“Their healing knowledges are rarely shared and are specific to their families.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataHealers spoke of the great inspiration they take from the bible and ministers' sermons and quoted frequently from the bible to explain their practice.
“They spoke of the great inspiration they take from the bible and ministers' sermons and quoted frequently from the bible to explain their practice.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataMany healers can trace an ancestral healing lineage going back four generations and claim their treatment is identical to their ancestors.
“Many healers can trace an ancestral healing lineage going back four generations and claim that their treatment is identical to their ancestors.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningMost women healers who treat tēvolo caused conditions first mention treating women's and children's sicknesses, and such cases form a larger part of their practice.
“Most women healers, who treat tēvolo caused conditions, first mention the fact of treating women's and children's sicknesses, which may on occasion be tēvolo caused.Such cases form a larger part of their practice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe healers interviewed were by and large erudite, eloquent, and powerfully convincing about their practice.
“By and large they were erudite, eloquent and powerfully convincing about their practice.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingown dataEvery healer has their own faito'o (remedy, treatment) and fakamatala (explanation).
“She explained that every healer has their own faito'o (remedy, treatment) and fakamatala (explanation).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe process of seeking healing goes against strict categorisation of healers in exclusive terms; tēvolo can potentially cause any difficult to treat condition and people seek help from whoever might be able to help.
“The process of seeking healing goes against any strict categorisation of healers in exclusive terms; tēvolo can potentially cause any difficult to treat condition and people seek help from whoever might be able to help for vague conditions that are difficult to define.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe transmission of healing knowledge is most commonly through involvement and aptitude, with children sent to collect remedies and witness treatments.
“The transmission of knowledge is most commonly through involvement and aptitude.Children of healers from an early age are sent to collect remedies from the bush by their parents and witness many treatments.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAll healers were middle aged and shared a confidence in their positions born of involvement in the Wesleyan Church or Church of Tonga, connections born of marriage and having grown up children.
“All healers were middle aged and shared a confidence in their positions born of involvement in the Wesleyan Church or Church of Tonga, connections born of marriage and having grown up children.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenMany healers claim that without fanofano treatments would not work and that the healer has some kind of ivi necessary for successful resolution.
“Many also claim that without the process of fanofano treatments would not work and that the healer has some kind of ivi ('power'), which is necessary for successful resolution.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningA healer may be well known to many but not necessarily popular, nor the first resort in cases of illness.
“A healer may be well known to many but not necessarily popular, nor the first resort in cases of illness.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
FindingreasoningPeople in general have more faith in people's response to requests for help than in the diagnostic categories used to define sickness.
“People in general have more faith in people's response to requests for help than in the diagnostic categories used to define sickness.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Findingown dataOne healer explained that there is only fakamahaki; the different names (te'ia, fakamahaki, 'āvanga) are all the same, only names differ.
“(H) There is only fakamahaki, what is different are the names, te'ia, fakamahaki, 'āvanga, that's all, overall that is all.They are all the same.What is different are the names.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningAkosita made clear that she did not touch the head when treating, implying knowledge of being able to treat nerves from other locations in the body.
“She made it clear, however, that she did not touch the head when treating, implying a knowledge of being able to treat nerves from other locations in the body.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAkosita seemed the most popular with the public health nurses the author knew, who respected her remedies for childhood conditions.
“She seemed the most popular with the public health nurses I knew, who respected her remedies for childhood conditions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAfter treatment, Lupe drained green coloured mucus from her nose, which Lilopau said was vai kafo (pus) and proof of her treatment.
“The amount of green coloured mucus that comes out from her nose is phenomenal.This is the test of te'ia and the proof of my treatment, says Lilopau, explaining that the green liquid is not ihu pe'e (mucus in the nose) but vai kafo (a kind of pus).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAkosita's diagnosis focused on her understanding of nerves in the body and argued that treatment of the leg, exercise, and going to church healed damaged nerves in Lupe's head.
“Akosita's diagnosis focused on her understanding of nerves in the body and argued that the treatment of the leg as well as exercise and going to church healed the damaged nerves in her head.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataFor Lilopau, the vai kafo was the proof of her treatment as well as confirmation of Lupe's te'ia.
“For her, the vai kafo was the proof of her treatment as well as confirmation of Lupe's te'ia.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataLilopau explained that Lupe had been seeing male tēvolo who wanted to sleep with her.
“She explained that Lupe had been seeing male tēvolo who wanted to sleep with her.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataIn November 1998, Lilopau was called to treat Lupe, a large lady in her early fifties, in a nearby village.
“In November 1998, Lilopau was called to treat a large lady in her early fifties named Lupe in a nearby village.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone givenThere are many ways that the term fakamahaki is used.
“There are many ways that the term fakamahaki is used.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataLealiki used the term fakamahaki almost exclusively; almost all patients she recorded were fakamahaki.
“Lealiki, by contrast, used the term fakamahaki almost exclusively.Of the patients I asked her to record in a notebook, almost all were fakamahaki.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAfter the healing wash, Lupe looked somewhat more envigorated, and everyone remarked on her eyes being wide open.
“She then picks off all the leaves that have stuck to her body and goes off for a shower, returning back to the room looking somewhat more envigorated.Everyone remarks on the fact of her eyes being wide open.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningIn Lilopau's terms, what the hospital regarded as mahaki (disease, illness) are potentially fakamahaki (tēvolo caused), hence her great confidence in treating all kinds of sicknesses.
“What the hospital regarded as mahaki (disease, illness) are potentially fakamahaki (tēvolo caused) in her terms, hence her great confidence in treating all kinds of sicknesses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataAkosita emphasised the importance of nerves in understanding fakamahaki cases based on a solid understanding of nerves being like 'uo'ua (muscles) and capable of breaking.
“She emphasised the importance of nerves in understanding fakamahaki cases based on a solid understanding of nerves being like 'uo'ua (muscles) and capable of breaking.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataLilopau makes a strong distinction between te'ia and 'āvanga but rarely uses fakamahaki; she prefers fakatēvolo as a general term.
“Lilopau makes a strong distinction between te'ia (to be stricken by a supernatural being) and 'āvanga but rarely uses fakamahaki; she prefers the term fakatēvolo as a general term to describe most of what she treats.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataLilopau's tendency to contradict her own definitions or criticise the need for clearly defined conditions was demonstrated by her insistence that several male tēvolo had wanted to sleep with her.
“Lilopau's tendency to contradict her own definitions or criticise the need for clearly defined conditions, was demonstrated in her insistence that in this case several male tēvolo had wanted to sleep with her.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataLilopau confirmed the seriousness of Lupe's condition in terms of tēvolo.
“When asked she confirms the seriousness of Lupe's condition in terms of tēvolo.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingown dataFangupu preferred the term fakamahaki fakatotokovi over fakatēvolo because saying fakatēvolo suggests they don't pray or believe in tēvolo.
“(H) Same thing, the same, fakamahaki, fakatēvolo, fakatotokovi but it is better to say fakamahaki fakatotokovi.To say fakatēvolo is to suggest that we don't pray, that we believe/have faith in tēvolo.There is only one kind of illness and that is fakamahaki fakatotokovi.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataLupe had been diagnosed with hypertension as an outpatient at the hospital three months before and returned to the hospital the day after Lilopau's final treatment.
“Lupe had actually been diagnosed with hypertension as an outpatient at the hospital three months before and returned to the hospital the day after Lilopau's final treatment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
FindingcitationNon-communicable disorders now make up 75% of the causes of death in Tonga, with injuries 11%, communicable diseases 11%, and HIV, TB and malaria combined 4%.
“Non-communicable disorders now make up 75% of the causes of death in Tonga, with injuries (11%) and communicable diseases (11%), followed by HIV, TB and malaria combined at 4% (WHO 2004).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites WHO 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataAkosita had also been treated in the hospital for a serious illness.
“She had also been treated in the hospital for a serious illness.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataOne of the women commented that Lupe has high blood pressure, implying she had been taken to the hospital, and got no response from Lilopau.
“One of the women's comments that she has high blood pressure, implying she has been taken to the hospital, gets no response from Lilopau.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataLealiki and Akosita both argued that fakamahaki was in part due to totosi'isi'i (little blood), introducing a naturalistic explanation for increased susceptibility while preserving tēvolo as the agent.
“Lealiki and Akosita both argued that fakamahaki was in part due to totosi'isi'i (lit.little blood), introducing a naturalistic explanation to explain increased susceptibility, but still seemingly preserving the tēvolo as the agent.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe women in the household supported Lilopau's comment on Lupe's improved awareness and confirmed her previous breathing difficulty and throat blockage.
“The women support Lilopau's comment on Lupe's improved awareness.They also confirm that before she was finding it very difficult to breathe, her throat was blocked and she felt mākona (satiated) all the time.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningFangupu does not know what the term really means in terms of haemoglobin, nor does she care to, but she appreciates the ramifications of using it to evoke and intensify valued relationships.
“Fangupu does not know what the term really means in terms of haemoglobin, nor does she care to, but she appreciates the ramifications of using it to evoke and intensify valued relationships.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAlthough Akosita had the greatest confidence in biomedical concepts, she still questioned the hospital's diagnosis for Lupe.
“By contrast, though Akosita had the greatest confidence in biomedical concepts she still questioned the hospital's diagnosis for Lupe.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingnone givenAlthough Lilopau went to the hospital for treatment of arthritis on her knee, she gained greater relief from re-arranging the bones of a relative.
“Though she went to the hospital for treatment of arthritis on her knee, she gained greater relief from re-arranging the bones of a relative.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataLilopau formulated a quasi-naturalistic mechanism for the functioning of the tulu'i, in which it travelled around the inside of the head and emerged later as a particular kind of vai kafo (pus).
“on this occasion she formulated a quasi-naturalistic mechanism for the functioning of the tulu'i.It travelled around the inside of the head and emerged later as a particular kind of vai kafo (pus).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataLilopau described her condition as te'ia, in her terms the result of the slap of the tēvolo and the most serious of the conditions she can treat.
“Lilopau described her condition as te'ia, in her terms the result of the slap of the tēvolo and the most serious of the conditions she can treat.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataOf the five healers, Lilopau was most personalistic in her explanation and Akosita most naturalistic.
“Of the five healers, Lilopau was most personalistic in her explanation, Akosita most naturalistic.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataAkosita recounted the story of her treatment on the author's first meeting with her in May 1999.
“By coincidence, Akosita recounted the story of her treatment on our first meeting in May 1999.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAll five healers tulu'i the eyes; some tulu'i the nose, most the mouth, but only Lealiki and Pisila tulu'i the ears.
“All of the five healers tulu'i the eyes, though two other healers I interviewed do not, for fear of causing blindness.Some tulu'i the nose, most the mouth, but only Lealiki and Pisila tulu'i the ears.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone givenHealers claim to be able to treat both mahaki and fakamahaki.
“Healers claim to be able to treat both mahaki and fakamahaki.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataLilopau diagnosed Lupe with te'ia, the most serious of conditions she defined as the result of the slap of a tēvolo.
“Lilopau diagnosed te'ia, the most serious of conditions she had previously defined as the result of the slap of a tēvolo.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingown dataAkosita was critical of other people's perception that Lupe's condition was tēvolo caused.
“She was critical of other people's perception that it was tēvolo caused.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataLilopau, Lealiki, Pisila and Siosiofanga used different terms and distinguished between them in terms of seriousness, symptoms and degree of relationship with tēvolo.
“Lilopau, Lealiki, Pisila and Siosiofanga used different terms and distinguished between the different terms in terms of seriousness, symptoms and degree of relationship with tēvolo.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenPisila suggests two types of 'āvanga of different seriousness, whereas Siosiofanga has a host of 'āvanga, each with a designated behavioural symptom.
“Pisila suggests two types of 'āvanga of different seriousness, whereas Siosiofanga has a host of 'āvanga, each with a designated behavioural symptom.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenLilopau has spent most of her life in her village, has great influence in her household and within the village, and her perspective is rarely challenged.
“Lilopau has spent most of her life in her village, she has great influence in her household and within the village and her perspective is rarely challenged.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataLealiki argued that a lack of blood makes it easier to see the face of the tēvolo and easier for the tēvolo to fili (choose) the person.
“A lack of blood, she argued, makes it easier to see the face of the tēvolo and easier for the tēvolo to fili (choose) the person.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Findingnone givenParticular nurses and healers are already loosely supporting each other in Vava'u.
“Particular nurses and healers are already loosely supporting each other in Vava'u.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenAkosita had more contact with relatives overseas; her son is a trained electrician and a daughter studies overseas.
“She had more contact with relatives overseas, her son is a trained electrician, a daughter studies overseas.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataAkosita moved from Nuku'alofa, where people are more biomedically aware, to Vava'u.
“She moved from Nuku'alofa, where people are, no doubt, more biomedically aware, to Vava'u.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenThe tēvolo did not return after Lealiki was given blood, and her husband brought her some Tongan remedy to drink.
“The tēvolo did not return after they gave her blood, and her husband brought her some Tongan remedy to drink.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningTraditional healing has always been syncretic, evolving in relation to hospital medicine.
“Traditional healing, in these terms, has always been syncretic, evolving in relation to hospital medicine.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationA model applied to healing syncretism would suggest that what seems like syncretism is actually a particular moment in an ongoing intercultural mimetic and counter-mimetic reverberation.
“it follows that a model applied to healing syncretism would suggest 'that what seems like syncretism is actually a particular moment in an ongoing intercultural mimetic and counter-mimetic reverberation' (Taussig 1987, In Langford 1999: 33).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe most serious criticism of the survey is its simplification of a complex situation, and homogenisation of a diversity of healers, some very supportive and unofficially supported by health professionals.
“However, the most serious criticism is its simplification of a complex situation, and homogenisation of a diversity of healers, some very supportive and unofficially supported by health professionals.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe diversity of and syncretism in non-biomedical local healing practice is little appreciated in policy debates.
“The diversity of and syncretism in non-biomedical local healing practice is little appreciated in policy debates.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe economic evaluation of healers affirmed financial reward as one key rationale for delay without recognition that in many cases patients are brought to the hospital first but are left unconvinced that hospital medicine is appropriate or can be useful.
“The evaluation thus affirmed financial reward as one key rationale for delay without recognition that in many cases patients are brought to the hospital first but are left unconvinced that hospital medicine is appropriate or can be useful.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLast (1981) established the unsystemised nature of much 'traditional' healing, criticising the then current anthropological notions of traditional medicine as a classifiable system with coherent principles that could be counterpoised with biomedical understandings.
“Last (1981) had already established the unsystemised nature of much 'traditional' healing, criticising the then current anthropological notions of traditional medicine as a classifiable system, with coherent principles that could be counterpoised with biomedical understandings.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Last 1981 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe survey could be criticised for its methodological failure to specify criteria for selection of healers, to survey healers on other islands or to qualify contrasting benefits of going to see a healer or doctor.
“The survey could be criticised for its methodological failure to specify the criteria for the selection of healers, to survey healers on other islands or to qualify the contrasting benefits of going to see a healer or doctor.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationDespite WHO policies on encouraging involvement of healers in public health and the formulation of a national policy on traditional medicine, Tonga's health services have engaged little nor had much official impact on healers.
“Despite WHO (World Health Organisation) policies on encouraging involvement of healers in public health and the formulation of a national policy on traditional medicine, Tonga's health services have engaged little nor had much official impact on healers (WHO 2002).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites WHO 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationAUSAID-run health sector reforms since 1999, supported by the World Bank, WHO and NZAID, have put Tonga's 'traditional' healers under unprecedented economically oriented scrutiny, with wide implications on the success of bilateral health services development.
“AUSAID-run health sector reforms since 1999, supported by the World Bank, WHO and NZAID, have put Tonga's 'traditional' healers under unprecedented economically oriented scrutiny, with wide implications on the success of bilateral health services development”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites AUSAID 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites AUSAID 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe claim for traditionality must be seen in light of its political and social function to claim authenticity and value ancestral links.
“The claim for traditionality must be seen in light of its political and social function to claim authenticity and value ancestral links.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Premisenone givenTonga's 'traditional' healers are neither professionalized nor officially valued by the Ministry of Health despite their widespread popularity.
“They are neither professionalized nor officially valued by the Ministry of Health despite their widespread popularity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningFurther collaboration with healers is limited by the changing priorities of the WHO as well as little funding for such programmes by the Ministry of Health.
“Further collaboration with healers is limited by the changing priorities of the WHO as well as little funding for such programmes by the Ministry of Health.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe low value accorded to mental health services in the Ministry of Health means that Dr Puloka's initiative has not been upscaled nor its benefits widely shared.
“However, the low value accorded to mental health services in the Ministry of Health means that this initiative has not been upscaled nor its benefits widely shared.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningA lack of understanding of health seeking behaviour among many doctors coupled with an education that devalues social factors in sickness causality means that in general doctors look down (sio lalo) on healers.
“A lack of understanding of health seeking behaviour among many doctors coupled with an education that devalues social factors in sickness causality means that in general doctors look down (sio lalo) on healers.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataA particularly famous healer claimed that the family had acknowledged his remedies as having cured patient P, but Dr Puloka recognised this as both a strategy of the healer to bolster his reputation and the family to avoid stigmatisation.
“During one of the first workshops a particularly famous healer claimed that the family had acknowledged his remedies as having cured the patient.Dr Puloka said nothing, recognising this as both a strategy of the healer to bolster his reputation and the family to avoid the stigmatisation that would result from wider recognition that the patient had a psychiatric disorder.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Premisenone givenContemporary ethnographic interest in intracultural variability and diversity took a decade to appear in Tonga.
“Despite Howard and Borofsky's (1989) claim in 'Developments in Polynesian Ethnology' contemporary ethnographic interest in intracultural variability and diversity took a decade to appear in Tonga.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Howard and Borofsky 1989
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe survey represented a return to a more polarising, and homogenising pre WHO (2002) discourse, as much a misrepresentation of healers as its polar opposite, a homogenising romantic rhetoric conflating 'traditionality' and 'authenticity'.
“Here was a return to a more polarising, and homogenising pre WHO (2002) discourse, as much a misrepresentation of healers as its polar opposite, a homogenising romantic rhetoric conflating 'traditionality' and 'authenticity'.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites WHO 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIn Tonga, doctors' education and ability to speak English marks them as high status in relation to much less educated healers, further limiting interaction.
“In Tonga their education and ability to speak English marks them as high status in relation to much less educated healers, further limiting interaction.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe creativity implied in healers' socially constitutive use of language with ancestors, relatives, patients, churches and the hospital questions the value of any notion of traditionality and suggests considerable grounds for collaboration.
“The creativity implied in healers' socially constitutive use of language with ancestors, relatives, patients, churches and the hospital questions the value of any notion of traditionality and suggests considerable grounds for collaboration.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationFunding for Psychiatric Services is currently only 1% of total ministry of health spending, some 10% of recommended WHO guidelines of 10% of total health spending.
“Funding for Psychiatric Services is currently only 1% of total ministry of health spending, some 10% of recommended WHO guidelines of 10% of total health spending (Puloka 2009, pers. com).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Puloka 2009, pers. com.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenSamoan and Tongan traditional medicine share many features and mutual historical influences that continue to the present time.
“Samoan and Tongan traditional medicine share many features and mutual historical influences that continue to the present time.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe procedure of fanofano confirms the transmission of healing power; its shortness suggests the essential transmission of ability has already taken place.
“The procedure of fanofano, in which the healer holds the hands of his/her acolyte, and says a few words, confirms the transmission of healing power.Its shortness suggests that the essential transmission of ability has already taken place.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningWomen are typically easier to ask to heal because they are popularly regarded as more talangofua and more likely to be at home than men.
“Women in this sense are typically easier to ask.They are popularly regarded as being more talangofua (easy to ask, obedient) and more likely to be at home than men.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe most popular healers can heal because of personal circumstances, meaning they are usually not the main wage earner.
“The most popular healers can heal because of personal circumstances, which means that they are usually not the main wage earner.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationAs McGrath (1999) affirms, using the metaphor of healers as islands and people travelling from island to island in search of healing, that process has changed little in form since the beginning of the century.
“As McGrath (1999) affirms, using the metaphor of healers as islands and people travelling from island to island in search of healing, that process has changed little in form since the beginning of the century.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites McGrath 1999 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenFailure to recognise syncretism is at once political, linguistic, social, institutional, developmental, economic, historical and epistemological.
“Failure to recognise syncretism is at once political, linguistic, social, institutional, developmental, economic, historical and epistemological.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLittlewood (1988) emphasised Foster's notion as a heuristic model to uncover the general schema of illness in Trinidad and argued that in many instances bush medicine could be seen as naturalistic in aetiology.
“Littlewood (1988) emphasised Foster's notion as a heuristic model to uncover the general schema of illness in Trinidad and argued that in many instances bush medicine could be seen as naturalistic in aetiology.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Littlewood 1988 source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationcitationThe developmental fetishisation of the 'traditional' and its contrast with modernity has considerable potential negative impacts on development outcomes.
“The developmental fetishisation of the 'traditional' and its contrast with modernity has considerable potential negative impacts on development outcomes.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationWHO recommendations of promoting public awareness are largely redundant in a Tongan context.
“WHO recommendations of promoting public awareness are largely redundant in a Tongan context (WHO 2002:42).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites WHO 2002:42
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLittlewood (1988) argued that the two types of knowledge (personalistic and naturalistic) are not incompatible, nor mutually exclusive, nor distinct.
“In applying Foster's (1976) notions of personalistic and naturalistic causality of illness to bush medicine in Trinidad, Littlewood (1988) argued that 'the two types of knowledge are not incompatible, nor mutually exclusive, nor distinct' (Littlewood 1988: 129).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Littlewood 1988 source
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataHealers' reknown reflects their supposed characteristics, capabilities, and acts, and also modes of communication and social events.
“Their reknown is a reflection both of their supposed characteristics, capabilities and acts but also of the modes of communication (along extended family, village, church lines) and social events that allow people to hear about some individuals more than others.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenThe diversity of healing practice and the degree to which healers use biomedical terms is absent in much of the ethnobotanical research on Tonga.
“The diversity of healing practice and the degree to which healers use biomedical terms is also absent in much of the ethnobotanical research on Tonga.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationTauhi vaha'a is manifest in acts that sustain social relations with kin and kin-like members.
“Ka'ili affirms that tauhi vaha'a is manifest in acts that 'sustain social relations with kin and kin-like members' (2005,92).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites [2005]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites [92]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenA definition of sickness must be regarded not only as a description or diagnosis, but as a word that has effects.
“As will become clearer in the case studies that follow a definition of sickness must not only be regarded as a description or diagnosis, but as a word that has effects.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe MacPhersons' focus on structural features explaining diversity and the WHO's emphasis on generalising traditional healers both understate healers' capacity for creativity and interest in biomedicine, and thus the possibility and different degrees of collaboration.
“The MacPhersons' (1990) focus on structural features explaining diversity and the WHO's emphasis on generalising traditional healers both understate healers' capacity for creativity and interest in biomedicine, and thus the possibility and different degrees of collaboration.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked- cites MacPhersons' (1990)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- cites WHO
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationcitationThe case study is illustrative of the increasing resort to healers that has accompanied the rise in often symptomatologically vague conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular conditions.
“The case study is also illustrative of the increasing resort to healers that has accompanied the rise in often symptomatologically vague conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular conditions (see WHO 2003).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites WHO 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningFakamahaki is more suitable because it is a composite of mahaki, the hospital's most widely used term for disease.
“Fakamahaki is more suitable because it is a composite of the term mahaki which is the hospital's most widely used term for disease.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The hospital's most widely used term for disease is mahaki.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThis is a solid social and epistemological basis for collaboration between healers and health professionals.
“This is a solid social and epistemological basis for collaboration between healers and health professionals.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe term's appropriateness seems more important than a strict definition for healers.
“The term's appropriateness seems more important than a strict definition.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe healers are not oriented towards a positivistic notion of 'disease'; people and tēvolo are always implicated in holistic states of sickness.
“The above healers are not oriented towards a positivistic notion of 'disease'.There seems little confidence in the essential ontology of all illnesses as exclusively naturalistic; people and tēvolo are always implicated in holistic states of sickness.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
InterpretationreasoningThe heuristic distinction of mahaki as naturalistic and fakamahaki as broadly personalistic is a useful one.
“Pisila's assertion that the cancer, evidently a mahaki, of the man she claimed to have cured in Samoa was in fact fakamahaki, suggests that the heuristic distinction of mahaki as naturalistic, and fakamahaki as broadly personalistic, is a useful one.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenHealers' explanations and action of explaining reflect the degree to which they are creatively evoking and intensifying relatedness to effect a cure.
“Their explanations and the action of explaining, which includes their use of terms, reflects the degree to which they are creatively evoking and intensifying relatedness to effect a cure.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe term fakatotokovi is naturalistic as understood by hospital staff but personalistic in Fangupu's terms.
“The term is naturalistic as understood by them, but personalistic in her terms.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAkosita's and Lilopau's actions, in response to a history of people's requests for help, have led to them becoming prominent interpreters of illness, evoking and intensifying their relatedness to many actors on that journey.
“Their actions, in response to a history of peoples' requests of help, have led to them becoming prominent interpreters of illness, evoking and intensifying their relatedness to many actors on that journey.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe current dichotomous models comparing TM and WSM do a disservice to healers positing naturalistic influences and doctors who recognise the importance of social and spiritual in influencing disease states.
“The current dichotomous models comparing TM and WSM do a disservice to healers positing naturalistic influences on sickness and doctors, such as Dr Mapa Puloka, who recognise the importance of the social and spiritual in influencing disease states.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenWhat healers claim to be mahaki seem more descriptions of symptoms in biomedical terms.
“What healers claim to be mahaki seem more descriptions of symptoms in biomedical terms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningA working translation for fakamahaki is the agency of sickness with the agent typically a tēvolo.
“A working translation for fakamahaki is thus the agency of sickness with the agent typically a tēvolo.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe diversity of treatments and remedies used by healers is evidence of their healing ancestry.
“The diversity of different treatments and remedies used by healers is evidence of their healing ancestry.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenIn positing a naturalistic susceptibility or composite naturalistic term, healers evoke and intensify relatedness to nurses and doctors and draw on terms with higher appropriateness and status associated with hospital expertise.
“In positing a naturalistic susceptibility or a composite naturalistic term, healers evoke and intensify relatedness to the nurses and doctors of the hospital and draw on terms that have higher appropriateness and status by virtue of being associated with the expertise of the hospital.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
May combine two claims.
Interpretationown dataThe term puke does not unambiguously or exclusively refer to 'disease'; puke fakatēvolo is both a description of being seized by a tēvolo and an assertion of sickness.
“Nor does the term puke unambiguously or exclusively refer to 'disease'.Puke can mean (to take hold of, to seize, to hold, to arrest) and also (to be sick, ill, unwell, ailing).Thus puke fakatēvolo is both a description of a situation (being seized by a tēvolo) and also an assertion of sickness.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationnone givenComplications from diabetes or poor dietary restriction adherence are increasingly causing death.
“Complications from diabetes or poor dietary restriction adherence which may fall into category (3) above are increasingly causing death.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationcitationNeither evaluating 'the economic potential of traditional medicine' nor establishing 'appropriate standards for traditional medicine' suggest the likelihood of building a more profound appreciation of healers' position in policy circles in terms they would recognise (WHO 2002: 42).
“Neither evaluating 'the economic potential of traditional medicine' nor establishing 'appropriate standards for traditional medicine' suggest the likelihood of building a more profound appreciation of healer's position in policy circles in terms they would recognise (WHO 2002: 42).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites WHO 2002: 42
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).
Interpretationown dataLilopau's syncretically framed concern to show the proof of her treatment would suggest that the evidence-based practice emphasis of the WHO would have some purchase.
“Lilopau's syncretically framed concern to show me the proof of her treatment would suggest that the evidence-based practice emphasis of the WHO would have some purchase.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites WHO
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenBoth healers and doctors treat the mistakes of each other, and both on occasion cause greater suffering because of their treatment.
“Both healers and doctors treat the mistakes of each other, and both on occasion cause greater suffering because of their treatment.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningBy revealing these terms, Lilopau and Akosita seem to detract from the most significant phenomenological component of their healing, the considerable physical, psychological and transformative support they provide that follows from their concern, faith and love.
“If anything, by revealing these terms they seem to detract from the most significant phenomenological component of their healing, the considerable, physical, psychological and transformative support they provide that follows from their concern, faith and love.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenNeither Lilopau's nor Akosita's focus on nerves or 'brain pus' would seem to biomedically strengthen their claim for the efficacy of their healing.
“However, neither Lilopau's nor Akosita's focus on nerves or 'brain pus' would seem to biomedically strengthen their claim for the efficacy of their healing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningExplaining the sickness in terms of a broken nerve or a tēvolo locates the cause of sickness outside the control of the household and Lupe and reduces any implied stigma.
“Explaining the sickness in terms of a broken nerve or a tēvolo locates the cause of sickness outside the control of the household and Lupe and reduces any implied stigma.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe alleviation of stigma and galvanising family in support around a patient are key in the absence of significant treatment at the hospital.
“The alleviation of stigma and galvanising family in support around a patient are key in the absence of significant treatment at the hospital.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenOne aspect of the efficacy of healers' practice follows from their arguing in religious and accessible terms.
“One aspect of the efficacy of healers' practice follows from their arguing in religious and accessible terms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationcitationThe fact that healing is woven into the social and religious fabric of a Christian constituted Tongan society suggests the redundancy of promoting 'public awareness of and access to traditional medicine' or fostering 'respect for the cultural integrity of traditional medicine' (WHO 2002:42).
“The fact that healing is woven into the social and religious fabric of a Christian constituted Tongan society, suggests the redundancy of promoting 'public awareness of and access to traditional medicine' or fostering 'respect for the cultural integrity of traditional medicine' (WHO 2002:42).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites WHO 2002:42
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningBecause of the importance of maintaining social relationships, both healers and doctors will typically be attributed some degree of efficacy, and not be informed of the fact that traditional and biomedical treatment is being carried out at the same time.
“And yet because of the importance of maintaining social relationships both healers and doctors will typically be attributed some degree of efficacy, and not be informed of the fact that traditional and biomedical treatment is being carried out at the same time.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningHealth professionals would certainly benefit from the knowledge of public resort to treatment and patients' perceptions of illness that healers provide.
“Health professionals would certainly benefit from the knowledge of public resort to treatment and patients' perceptions of illness that healers provide.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe Tonga national health account survey is a poor start, its epistemic bias contributes little to better understanding.
“The Tonga national health account survey is a poor start, its epistemic bias contributes little to better understanding.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationcitationUnderstanding the current social, economic and religious influences informing attribution of efficacy to doctors' and healers' practice is a necessary balance to claims of traditionality or scientific objectivity, particularly if notions of efficacy are everywhere 'guided by cultural, political and moral values' (Desjarlais 1992: 224).
“Understanding the current social, economic and religious influences informing attribution of efficacy to doctor's and healers practice is a necessary balance to claims of traditionality or scientific objectivity, particularly if notions of efficacy are everywhere 'guided by cultural, political and moral values' (Desjarlais 1992: 224).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites Desjarlais 1992: 224
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe creativity, interest and critical experience of biomedical practice among healers suggest the potential for fruitful collaboration.
“Their creativity, interest and critical experience of biomedical practice suggest the potential for fruitful collaboration.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe particular diversity and syncretism of 'traditional' healing in Tonga suggests little benefit from following the regionalised strategies of the WHO.
“The particular diversity and syncretism of 'traditional' healing in Tonga suggests little benefit from following the regionalised strategies of the WHO.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites WHO
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
InterpretationreasoningThe contribution of anthropology in this context is to reveal the wider social dynamics of healing, enabling policy makers to question and retheorise on the basis of what is actually taking place, rather than the locally insensitive strategies encouraged through bilateral development.
“The contribution of anthropology in this context is to reveal the wider social dynamics of healing, that enables policy makers to question and retheorise on the basis of what is actually taking place, rather than the locally insensitive strategies encouraged through bilateral development.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe syncretic terms in which healers are constrained to represent their practice do not enable them to do justice to their healing.
“However, the syncretic terms in which healers are constrained to represent their practice do not enable them to do justice to their healing.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Healers' statements about their motivations and practice are sincere and accurately reflect their actual motivations and practice.
“Their pure motivations, some explained, were a reflection of their personal qualities of loto fietokoni (of a helpful disposition) and loto 'ofa (kind hearted, of a kind or loving disposition) and manifest in their claims that no matter how difficult and tiring the treatment was, they would not refuse treatment nor charge a fee.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The five 'spirit' healers studied are among the most popular healers in Vava'u and their diversity is sufficient to illustrate the diversity of local healing practice.
“This paper examines the diversity and syncretism of five of the most popular 'spirit' healers in Vava'u, Tonga in terms suggested by healers themselves using the Tongan concept and value of tauhi vaha'a (to evoke and intensify relatedness) as an analytic tool.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The five healers selected are representative of healers in Vava'u for the purpose of describing diversity and syncretism.
“My comparison of the healers is grounded in how people described them, my experience of them, their most obvious local connections and, following Loloa's suggestion, the most salient aspects of their treatment strategies and explanations of their practice.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The hospital's most widely used term for disease is mahaki.
“Fakamahaki is more suitable because it is a composite of the term mahaki which is the hospital's most widely used term for disease.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The five healers studied are representative of traditional healers in Vava'u and Tonga, so that conclusions about diversity and syncretism drawn from them apply to traditional healing in Tonga more broadly.
“Of the five healers, Lilopau was most personalistic in her explanation, Akosita most naturalistic.”
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- Authors
- Poltorak, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Kent (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Poltorak, Mike
- ORCID
- Poltorak, Mike
- Venue
- Oceania
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2010-03
- Volume
- 80
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-23
- ISSN
- 0029-8077 (ISSN-L)
- 1834-4461
- OpenAlex
- W1985116255
- Semantic Scholar
- f0ec1e01d5efa643fcaf19430acf044e294d3c3c
- Cited by
- 10
- References
- 65
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 1 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 1 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 0.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Oceania (publishedVersion)
- Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Indigenous Health, Education, and Rights
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › African Studies and Ethnography
- Social Sciences › Anthropology › Anthropological Studies and Insights
- Keywords
- traditional healers, syncretism, health policy, health system development, relatedness, traditionality, interprofessional collaboration, Vava'u, Tonga, non-communicable diseases
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