The DOI matches its Crossref record; 106 of the 106 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Relevance of protein fermentation to gut health
Abstract
It is generally accepted that carbohydrate fermentation results in beneficial effects for the host because of the generation of short chain fatty acids, whereas protein fermentation is considered detrimental for the host's health. Protein fermentation mainly occurs in the distal colon, when carbohydrates get depleted and results in the production of potentially toxic metabolites such as ammonia, amines, phenols and sulfides. However, the effectivity of these metabolites has been established mainly in in vitro studies. In addition, some important bowel diseases such as colorectal cancer (CRC) and ulcerative colitis appear most often in the distal colon, which is the primary site of protein fermentation. Finally, epidemiological studies revealed that diets rich in meat are associated with the prevalence of CRC, as is the case in Western society. Importantly, meat intake not only increases fermentation of proteins but also induces increased intake of fat, heme and heterocyclic amines, which may also play a role in the development of CRC. Despite these indications, the relationship between gut health and protein fermentation has not been thoroughly investigated. In this review, the existing evidence about the potential toxicity of protein fermentation from in vitro animal and human studies will be summarized.
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“Studies in animal models and in vitro show that compounds like ammonia, phenols, p-cresol, certain amines and hydrogen sulfide, play important roles in the initiation or progression of a leaky gut, inflammation, DNA damage and cancer progression.15”
From The gut microbiota and host health: a new clinical frontier (2016) · cites this paper as [15]
In the citing paper
“Regarding this, as protein consumption is increased, the amount of proteins reaching the colon is increasing correspondingly, leading to numerous and diverse bacterial metabolite production (e.g., hydrogen sulfide, branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs), SCFAs, polyamines, ammonia, methane, aromatic compounds, nitric oxide, tyramine, tryptamine, phenethylamine, serotonin, histamine, and others) in the”
From Impact of Protein Intake in Older Adults with Sarcopenia and Obesity: A Gut Microbiota Perspective (2020) · cites this paper as [147]
In the citing paper
“BCAA deamination leading to BCFA production is a marker of colonic fermentation developed by protein consumption [147].”
From Impact of Protein Intake in Older Adults with Sarcopenia and Obesity: A Gut Microbiota Perspective (2020) · cites this paper as [147]
In the citing paper
“Fermented foods enriched with Lactobacillus sp. and Bifidobacteria sp [129] can result in specific changes in gut microbiota activity, improving stress-induced symptoms such as depression, mood disturbance as well as digestive issues [130].”
From Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes (2016) · cites this paper as [129]
In the citing paper
“While athletes may require a higher protein intake, high protein diets can affect the microbiota composition and function through amino acid fermentation in the colon that produces undesirable metabolites (e.g. phenol, hydrogen sulfide and amines) and urea and tend to lead to higher fecal pH (reviewed by Windey et al [129]).”
From Exercise-induced stress behavior, gut-microbiota-brain axis and diet: a systematic review for athletes (2016) · cites this paper as [129]
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Sarcopenic Obesity: The Underlying Molecular Pathophysiology and Prospect Therapies
Meiliana, A., Dewi, N. M., Defi, I. R., Rosdianto, A. M., Qiantori, A. A., & Wijaya, A. (2024) · The Indonesian Biomedical Journal · doi:10.18585/inabj.v16i4.3176 · Cited by 4
“(122 ,126,127) Certain metabolic byproducts are harmful to metabolic health and have been linked to a number of disorders, including inflammatory bowel disease and colorectal cancer, as well as chronic inflammation.”
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“Protein fermentation di ff ers from saccharolytic fermentation in that it produces many similar SCFAs from a carbon skeleton, but also releases potentially toxic nitrogenous and sulfur metabolites such as ammonia, amines, nitrates, nitrites, and hydrogen sul fi de (129) (Figure 4).”
Wang, Z., Chen, G., Sun, X., Xiao, J., Kong, L., Jiang, S., Xu, T., Wang, M., & Zhao, H. (2025) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2025.1644014 · Cited by 7
“In the distal colon under high-fat diet conditions—characterized by limited fermentable carbohydrates—gut microbiota preferentially engage in proteolytic metabolism, driving BCFAs overproduction (62).”
The fate of dietary protein in the gastrointestinal tract and implications for colonic disease
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Exploring the Role of Mentha in Gut Microbiota: A Modern Perspective of an Ancient Herb
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Dietary Proteins Alter Fermentation Characteristics of Human Gut Microbiota In Vitro
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“Protein fermentation yields intrinsically toxic luminal compounds that affect epithelial cell metabolism and barrier function [58].”
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Microbiota and detrimental protein derived metabolites in colorectal cancer
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“When diets high in protein are consumed, the distal colon microbiota utilise the accumulated protein as an alternative carbon source, which leads to the formation of potentially toxic compounds (Russell et al., 2011; Windey et al., 2012).”
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FOURTH UNIVERSAL DEFINITION OF MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION. FOCUS ON THE TYPE 2 MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION
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Effects of Different Ionic Polysaccharides in Cooked Lean Pork Batters on Intestinal Health in Mice
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“In addition, undigested protein and/or unabsorbed amino acids pass into the colon and are subjected to anaerobic fermentation by gut microbes, thus impairing the host’s health [27].”
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“BCFAs are commonly used as biomarkers of colonic protein fermentation leading to the concomitant production of other potentially toxic protein fermentation products such as ammonia, phenol, and H 2 S, which can cause cell damage in the intestine [53,54].”
Background“We Are What We Eat”: How Diet Impacts the Gut Microbiota in Adulthood
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Which Microbes Like My Diet and What Does It Mean for My Heart?
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“The gut microbiome composition in animal models seems to be strictly associated with the consumption of dietary protein, whereby doses from 100 to 200 g/kg caused an increase in Lactobacilli and a reduction in Coliformis and Staphylococci; doses greater than 200 g/kg caused an increase in Coliforms, Streptococcus and…”
BackgroundInfluentialPhenylpropionc acid produced by gut microbiota alleviates acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicityPreprint
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“A large portion of phenylalanine available to gut bacteria in the large intestine is derived from proteolytic degradation of proteins by gut bacteria, which releases free phenylalanine or phenylalanine-containing peptides (60).”
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“36 This could exacerbate the proliferative migratory environment within the healing anastomotic tissue.”
BackgroundDetermination of the Impact of Extruded Soybean Press Cake on Rearing and Health Indices of Piglets
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“4,44,45 Notably, gut-derived metabolites enter systemic circulation, reaching distal organs and tissues where they can influence physiological processes and health.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Windey, K., De Preter, V., & Verbeke, K.
- Affiliations
- Universitair Ziekenhuis Leuven (BE)
- Corresponding author
- Verbeke, Kristin
- ORCID
- Verbeke, Kristin
- Venue
- Molecular Nutrition & Food Research
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2011-11-25
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 184-196
- ISSN
- 1613-4125 (ISSN-L)
- 1613-4133
- OpenAlex
- W2101238009
- Cited by
- 692
- References
- 106
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 60 · 2021: 59 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 53 · 2017: 40 · 2016: 41 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 1.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Molecular Nutrition & Food Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Lirias (KU Leuven) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Gut microbiota and health
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Microbial Metabolites in Food Biotechnology
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Animal Nutrition and Physiology
- Keywords
- protein fermentation, gut health, distal colon, short-chain fatty acids, ammonia, amines, phenols, sulfide, colorectal cancer, ulcerative colitis, meat consumption, heme, heterocyclic amines, dietary fat, colonic metabolites
- MeSH terms
- Ammonia, Animals, Colon, Cresols, Diet, Fermentation, Humans, Hydrogen Sulfide, Meat, Phenols, Proteins, Colorectal Neoplasms, Gastrointestinal Tract
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