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Cited by 0Migration, Health and TraumaCounseling Practices and SupervisionPsychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 40 of the 41 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 8 of the 39 sources its claims cite were checked for support.

Person‐Centered Case Formulation: A Culturally Responsive and Trauma Informed Reconceptualization for Psychotraumatology Practice

Open access
O'Brien, Charlotte, Charura, Divine·2026·MultiPsych
DOI 10.1002/mps2.70012
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Abstract

This is a conceptual‐practice paper proposing a person‐centered formulation, illustrated with a clinical case study derived from qualitative research data. This paper aims to update and promote the use of a culturally responsive and trauma‐informed model of a person‐centered formulation for individuals seeking refuge and asylum, utilizing accessible language and a holistic approach. It adopts two methods, namely, (i) a qualitative case study approach to collaboratively explore a client's narrative of trauma and displacement, (ii) it develops a new person‐centered formulation based on a culturally responsive and trauma‐informed model. This paper demonstrates how a person‐centered approach may facilitate a more holistic conceptualization of trauma, relational distress, and systemic adversity amongst refugee and asylum‐seeking populations, enabling a more effective, nonpathologizing therapeutic exploration and process. It advocates for the inclusion of a person‐centered formulation in psychotraumatology practice with individuals seeking refuge and asylum as part of a culturally responsive and trauma informed approach to psychotherapy. Finally, it highlights the potential clinical implications for working with clients from various cultural contexts, and the importance of language considerations and a holistic therapeutic approach.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This conceptual-practice paper proposes a culturally responsive, trauma-informed person-centered case formulation model for psychotraumatology practice with refugees and asylum seekers, illustrated by an anonymized case, “Ade.” It argues for an eight-stage, holistic, nonpathologizing formulation process that integrates culture, language, spirituality, embodiment, and systemic adversity.

Key findings

  • The paper proposes an interconnected eight-stage person-centered formulation model, centered on the person within a bio-psycho-social-sexual-spiritual-existential-cultural framework, rather than a rigid linear or diagnostic tool.
  • The illustrative case, Ade, was a man of Pakistani heritage aged 45–54, unemployed, divorced, and seeking refuge in Northern England with his daughter; he scored 10 out of 10 on the Trauma Screening Questionnaire (TSQ), signifying likely PTSD.
  • Ade’s distress included anxiety, exhaustion, loneliness, hopelessness, bodily pain, and suicidal thoughts, with maintaining factors including asylum uncertainty, financial hardship, social isolation, language barriers, and discrimination; protective factors included his daughter, religious faith and spiritual community, helping others, exercise, and willingness to engage in therapy.
  • Language and interpretation were central: Ade struggled to understand questions even with an interpreter, and his culturally embedded expression of “banging one’s head against the wall” illustrated distress communicated through culturally specific metaphors not readily accommodated in conventional formulation.

Methods

  • Conceptual-practice paper using a qualitative case study methodology, drawing on McLeod’s (2010) articulation of case study research; the case is drawn from a doctoral thesis study on embodied trauma among refugee and asylum-seeking populations and is used illustratively rather than representationally.
  • The case data came from a qualitative semi-structured interview with a structured TSQ section and seven open questions covering embodied trauma, body/self-concept, and refuge/asylum dislocation, followed by a body mapping exercise; reflexive thematic analysis was used with a sample of 13 participants, and Ade’s raw data appear in Appendix A.
  • The new model integrates a scoping review on embodied trauma and culturally re-envisions Simms’ (2011) person-centered formulation; ethical approval was gained from York St John University’s School of Education, Language and Psychology Ethics Committee (Approval Code: RECCOUN00025).

Limitations

  • Stated: the paper uses a qualitative in-depth case study of one participant, and the conceptualized domains are specific to that participant and not generalizable to all clients; further exploration and evidencing of the model in practice are recommended.
  • Stated: although the model attempts to move beyond westernized assumptions, it remains situated within counseling psychology discourse and may still reflect western epistemological foundations; empirical research on clinical utility, acceptability, and therapeutic outcomes is needed.
  • Stated: broadening the approach beyond classical client-centered psychotherapy to “person-centered” may dilute the potency of a puristic approach. Evident from the text: no clinical outcome or effectiveness data are reported, and the formulation is presented as conceptual and illustrative only.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/mps2.70012

Cites

40 of 41 references verified1 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

8 of 39 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Trauma can be experienced by and impact any individual across any one or combination of their bio-psycho-social-sexual-spiritual-existential and cultural or holistic realms of existence.

    “we have proposed in our own research on conceptualizing trauma that it can be experienced by and impact any individual across any one or combination of their bio-psycho-social-sexual-spiritual-existential and cultural or holistic realms of existence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites O'Brien and Charura 2023 source

      The ‘Suitability of definition of embodied trauma’ section proposes bio-psycho-social-sexual-spiritual-existential manifestations, and the Abstract includes cultural reactions in its definition of embodied trauma. The paper presents these manifestations through a study of displaced participants; the passages do not explicitly extend the full formulation to any individual or describe ‘any one or combination’ of the realms. (LLM, conf=0.83)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Ongoing postmigration stressors, such as poverty, insecure immigration status, and social isolation, are often more predictive of psychological distress amongst refugees than premigration trauma exposure alone.

    “Likewise, Miller and Rasmussen (2017) suggest that ongoing postmigration stressors, such as poverty, insecure immigration status, and social isolation, are often more predictive of psychological distress amongst refugees than premigration trauma exposure alone.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Miller and Rasmussen (2017) source
  • Premisecitation

    Language is a central issue regarding the formulation of psychological distress with individuals seeking refuge and asylum, especially what is lost in translation.

    “A central issue regarding the formulation of psychological distress with individuals who are seeking refuge and asylum is language, especially what is lost in translation (Uphoff and Charura 2016;O'Brien and Charura 2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Uphoff and Charura 2016

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites O'Brien and Charura 2023 source
  • Premisecitation

    Contemporary or traditional models of formulation such as CBT, Psychodynamic, or CFT have historically underemphasized cultural identity, value systems, expressions of distress, aspects of intersectionality, or language considerations.

    “Contemporary or traditional models of formulation such as CBT (Beck 2019), Psychodynamic (Malan 1979) or Compassion Focussed Therapy (CFT) (Gilbert 2009) have historically underemphasized cultural identity, value systems, expressions of distress, aspects of intersectionality or language considerations which resoundingly echo the profound absence of multicultural training and competencies and colon”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Beck 2019 source
    • cites Malan 1979

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Gilbert 2009 source
  • Findingreasoning

    In the case of Ade, distress could not be meaningfully understood without considering the intersection of displacement, loss of cultural belonging, separation from family, poverty, exclusion from community networks, and prolonged uncertainty associated with the asylum process.

    “In the case of Ade, for example, distress could not be meaningfully understood without considering the intersection of displacement, loss of cultural belonging, separation from family, poverty, exclusion from community networks, and prolonged uncertainty associated with the asylum process.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 45
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 28

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The client's consent was given as part of a doctoral thesis research study.

    “The client's consent was given as part of a doctoral thesis research study and the full paper of this study can be read via the subsequent publications (O'Brien and Charura 2023, 2024).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites O'Brien and Charura 2023 source

      The Informed consent section says participants signed consent forms and gave verbal consent before recording. Our copy does not identify the particular client in the citing sentence or state that the study was part of a doctoral thesis (searched: doctoral thesis, PhD, doctorate). (LLM, conf=0.80)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites O'Brien and Charura 2024

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Trauma amongst refugee and asylum-seeking populations is embodied and culturally mediated.

    “The findings further reinforce recent literature which conceptualizes trauma amongst refugee and asylum-seeking populations as embodied and culturally mediated (Murphy et al. 2021;O'Brien and Charura 2023).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Murphy et al. 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites O'Brien and Charura 2023 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The structured section of the interview was made up of the Trauma Screening Questionnaire (TSQ).

    “The research method employed in this study asked Ade to take part in a qualitative semistructured interview where the structured section was made up of the TSQ (Brewin et al. 2002).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brewin et al. 2002 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingcitation

    Ade scored 10 out of a possible 10 on the Trauma Screening Questionnaire (TSQ), signifying likely Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

    “Ade scored 10 out of a possible 10 on the Trauma Screening Questionnaire (TSQ) (Brewin et al. 2002) signifying likely Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brewin et al. 2002 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Ade's relationship with his daughter, religious faith and engagement with a spiritual community and practice, commitment to helping others, engagement with exercise, and willingness to engage in therapy all represented important sources of resilience that could be incorporated into therapeutic work.

    “Ade's relationship with his daughter, religious faith and engagement with a spiritual community and practice, commitment to helping others, engagement with exercise, and willingness to engage in therapy all represented important sources of resilience that could be incorporated into therapeutic work.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    In Ade's case, experiences of anxiety, exhaustion, loneliness, hopelessness, bodily pain, and suicidal thoughts emerged as central concerns.

    “In Ade's case, experiences of anxiety, exhaustion, loneliness, hopelessness, bodily pain, and suicidal thoughts emerged as central concerns.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    His story was not solely one of trauma and loss but also one of perseverance, responsibility, and hope.

    “His story was not solely one of trauma and loss but also one of perseverance, responsibility, and hope.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    Using the case formulation of "Ade," the paper has demonstrated how distress amongst displaced individuals may be more accurately understood as relational, embodied, existential, cultural, and socio-political in nature, rather than solely as intrapsychic dysfunction or symptomatology.

    “Using the case formulation of “Ade,” this paper has demonstrated how distress amongst displaced individuals may be more accurately understood as relational, embodied, existential, cultural, and socio-political in nature, rather than solely as intrapsychic dysfunction or symptomatology.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The single case of Ade is sufficient to illustrate the proposed model's domains and dynamics.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Ade frequently struggled to understand questions even when supported by an interpreter, suggesting that translation alone may not sufficiently bridge differences in meaning-making, cultural assumptions, and conceptualizations of distress.

    “Ade frequently struggled to understand questions even when supported by an interpreter, suggesting that translation alone may not sufficiently bridge differences in meaning-making, cultural assumptions, and conceptualizations of distress.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    For Ade, therapeutic aims included reducing distress, strengthening social connections, processing traumatic experiences safely, rebuilding a sense of dignity and belonging, and supporting hope for the future.

    “For Ade, this included reducing distress, strengthening social connections, processing traumatic experiences safely, rebuilding a sense of dignity and belonging, and supporting hope for the future.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Ade was a man of Pakistani heritage, aged between 45 and 54 years-old, unemployed and divorced, and seeking refuge in Northern England with his daughter.

    “Ade was a man of Pakistani heritage, aged between 45 and 54 years-old, unemployed and divorced, and seeking refuge in Northern England with his daughter.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Ade's relationship with his daughter, his faith, his engagement with exercise, and his efforts to support others within the refugee community all emerged as significant protective resources.

    “Ade's relationship with his daughter, his faith, his engagement with exercise, and his efforts to support others within the refugee community all emerged as significant protective resources.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingreasoning

    Distress experienced by displaced individuals is relational, embodied, cultural, spiritual, existential, and systemic in nature, requiring a holistic and collaborative approach to formulation.

    “Instead, the findings presented here suggest that distress experienced by displaced individuals is relational, embodied, cultural, spiritual, existential, and systemic in nature, requiring a holistic and collaborative approach to formulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Formulation is never a neutral process and is inevitably influenced by the practitioner's own theoretical orientation, cultural positioning, assumptions, and lived experiences.

    “We recognize that formulation is never a neutral process and is inevitably influenced by the practitioner's own theoretical orientation, cultural positioning, assumptions, and lived experiences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisereasoning

    There is arguably not space in the existing models of formulation to conceptualize and document culturally specific expressions of distress or to consider language requirements of each individual.

    “There is arguably not space in the existing models of formulation to conceptualize and document these culturally specific expressions of distress or to consider language requirements of each individual.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The proposed model positions formulation not as a static diagnostic exercise, but as a collaborative, culturally responsive and meaning-making process grounded in the client's lived experience, identity, values, relationships, and context.

    “The proposed model therefore positions formulation not as a static diagnostic exercise, but as a collaborative, culturally responsive and meaningmaking process grounded in the client's lived experience, identity, values, relationships, and context.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The model explicitly incorporates cultural identity, language considerations, spirituality, community belonging, embodied expressions of distress, and sociopolitical context while maintaining core person-centered principles of empathy, collaboration, phenomenological understanding, and nonpathologisation.

    “While maintaining the core person-centered principles of empathy, collaboration, phenomenological understanding, and nonpathologisation, it explicitly incorporates cultural identity, language considerations, spirituality, community belonging, embodied expressions of distress, and sociopolitical context.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Informed consent was sought from each participant via a paper consent form and through verbal consent, including consent for anonymized data sharing for research, publication and dissemination purposes.

    “Informed consent was sought from each participant in the study via a paper consent form and through verbal consent.This included consent for anonymized data sharing for research, publication and dissemination purposes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    All interpretation is partial and situated, and alternative understandings may emerge from various cultural, relational, or theoretical perspectives.

    “We remain mindful that all interpretation is partial and situated, and that alternative understandings may emerge from various cultural, relational, or theoretical perspectives.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The formulation begins with an exploration of the client's context and background, recognizing that experiences of migration, displacement, family relationships, culture, language, faith, social position, and exposure to trauma shape the individual's current experiences.

    “The formulation begins with an exploration of the client's context and background, recognizing that experiences of migration, displacement, family relationships, culture, language, faith, social position, and exposure to trauma shape the individual's current experiences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Although the model attempts to move beyond westernized assumptions, it remains situated within counseling psychology discourse and may still reflect certain western epistemological foundations.

    “Second, although the model attempts to move beyond westernized assumptions, it remains situated within counseling psychology discourse and may still reflect certain western epistemological foundations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Language, interpretation, spirituality, community belonging, and systemic context are crucially important when working therapeutically with refugee and asylum-seeking populations.

    “The paper further highlights the crucial importance of language, interpretation, spirituality, community belonging, and systemic context when working therapeutically with refugee and asylumseeking populations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The paper presents a theoretical and practice-oriented framework illustrated through a single case example, limiting generalizability.

    “First, the paper presents a theoretical and practice-oriented framework illustrated through a single case example, limiting generalizability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    Current environments may continue to perpetuate distress and systemic retraumatization.

    “This highlights trauma-informed principles which suggest that current environments may continue to perpetuate distress and systemic retraumatization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These factors emerge from the client's own strengths, values, relationships, cultural resources, spirituality, and community connections.

    “Within the current formulation, these factors emerge from the client's own strengths, values, relationships, cultural resources, spirituality, and community connections.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationown data

    The current model incorporates cultural, relational, systemic, and sociopolitical influences, unlike many traditional formulations that focus primarily on intrapsychic processes.

    “Unlike many traditional formulations that focus primarily on intrapsychic processes, the current model incorporates cultural, relational, systemic, and sociopolitical influences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    The formulation presented does not claim to represent the participant's definitive experience, but rather demonstrates one possible culturally and trauma-informed understanding developed through phenomenological and relational interpretation.

    “The formulation presented does not claim to represent the participant's definitive experience, but rather demonstrates one possible culturally and trauma-informed understanding developed through phenomenological and relational interpretation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The participant's interview narratives provide a valid basis for formulating his distress.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The case is used illustratively rather than representationally, with the focus not on generalization but on theoretical and experiential resonance.

    “The case which we draw our formulation ideas from, involves a research participant, a man seeking sanctuary in the United Kingdom and is used illustratively rather than representationally.The focus is not on generalization, but on theoretical and experiential resonance, enabling a nuanced exploration of how cultural location, trauma, and power shape the formulation processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Culturally informed person-centered formulation offers a meaningful and ethically responsive framework for psychotraumatology practice with individuals seeking refuge and asylum.

    “Overall, this paper argues that culturally informed personcentered formulation offers a meaningful and ethically responsive framework for psychotraumatology practice with individuals seeking refuge and asylum.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The model extends contemporary person-centered thinking by integrating trauma-informed and culturally responsive principles, recognizing the impact of trauma on embodiment, relationships, identity, safety, and meaning-making.

    “The model also extends contemporary personcentered thinking by integrating trauma informed and culturally responsive principles, recognizing the impact of trauma on embodiment, relationships, identity, safety, and meaningmaking.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Both authors engaged in ongoing dialogue, critical reflection, and collaborative discussion throughout the writing process in order to challenge assumptions, deepen reflexive awareness, and ensure that the proposed formulation framework remained aligned with person-centered, antipathologizing, and culturally responsive values.

    “Both authors engaged in ongoing dialogue, critical reflection, and collaborative discussion throughout the writing process in order to challenge assumptions, deepen reflexive awareness, and ensure that the proposed formulation framework remained aligned with person-centered, antipathologizing, and culturally responsive values.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationnone given

    The model follows an interconnected eight-stage process.

    “The logic of the model follows an interconnected eight-stage process.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    There remains a risk that formulation could inadvertently impose professional interpretations onto clients' lived experiences, particularly when shaped by institutional requirements or dominant psychological discourses.

    “There remains a risk that formulation could inadvertently impose professional interpretations onto clients' lived experiences, particularly when shaped by institutional requirements or dominant psychological discourses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    Existing revisions of person-centered formulation have not yet gone far enough to incorporate a holistic, culturally and trauma-informed approach to formulating therapeutic work with clients in psychotraumatology.

    “However, we argue that these revision have not yet gone far enough to incorporate a holistic, culturally and trauma-informed approach to formulating therapeutic work with clients in the field of psychotraumatology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: No comprehensive model has yet been proposed considering the holistic aspects of an individual.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The formulation functions as a bridge between understanding the client's experiences and identifying meaningful therapeutic priorities.

    “The formulation therefore functions as a bridge between understanding the client's experiences and identifying meaningful therapeutic priorities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationcitation

    The eighth stage translates the formulation into an articulation of the incongruence (or psychological maladjustment) that the client experiences, thwarting of their actualizing tendency, as well as identifying what they need to move toward growth and healing.

    “The eighth stage translates the formulation into an articulation of the incongruence (or psychological maladjustment) that the client experiences, thwarting of their actualizing tendency, as well as identifying what they need to move toward growth and healing (Rogers 1957a(Rogers , 1957b(Rogers , 1959)).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Rogers 1957a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Rogers 1957b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Rogers 1959

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Offering a space to collaboratively explore the client's context and background utilizing this formulation allows for a process and relational orientated approach.

    “Offering a space to collaboratively explore the client's context and background utilizing this formulation allows for a process and relational orientated approach.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The participant has been pseudonymized 'Ade' and some details have been changed to uphold confidentiality.

    “The participant has been pseudonymized “Ade,” which is not their real name, and some details have been changed to uphold confidentiality.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These understandings collectively inform an articulation of what the client experiences as hurting, as well as the direction they feel they need to move toward growth, healing, and self-actualization.

    “These understandings collectively inform an articulation of what the client experiences as hurting, as well as the direction they feel they need to move toward growth, healing, and self-actualization (Rogers 1957a(Rogers , 1957b(Rogers , 1959)).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Rogers 1957a

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Rogers 1957b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Rogers 1959

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This facilitates a depth of moment-by-moment meaning making and contextualized formulation of distress, which also identifies and prizes strengths and resources alongside the client's challenges or difficulties.

    “This facilitates a depth of moment-by-moment meaning making and contextualized formulation of distress, which also identifies and prizes strengths and resources alongside the client's challenges or difficulties.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationnone given

    The seventh stage identifies protective and facilitative factors of change.

    “The seventh stage identifies protective and facilitative factors of change.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Without consideration of language, interpretation, spirituality, community belonging, and systemic context, there remains a risk that practitioners may inadvertently misunderstand, pathologize or decontextualize culturally situated experiences of distress.

    “Without such considerations, there remains a risk that practitioners may inadvertently misunderstand, pathologize or decontextualize culturally situated experiences of distress.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Ethical approval was gained from York St John University's School of Education, Language and Psychology Ethics Committee (Approval Code: RECCOUN00025).

    “Ethical approval was gained from York St John University's School of Education, Language and Psychology Ethics Committee.Approval Code: RECCOUN00025.”
    • Also stated in: § Additional information · plain
      “Ethical approval was gained from York St John University's School of Education, Language and Psychology Ethics Committee.Approval Code: RECCOUN00025.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Formulation is not merely an assessment task, but a collaborative and dialogical process of meaning-making between practitioner, client and, where relevant, interpreter.

    “Formulation therefore becomes not merely an assessment task, but a collaborative and dialogical process of meaning-making between practitioner, client and, where relevant, interpreter.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Premisenone given

    Culture, spirituality, language, systemic oppression, displacement, and embodied expressions of distress have often remained peripheral or insufficiently conceptualized in existing formulation practices.

    “In doing so, the paper responds to a significant gap within existing formulation practices, where culture, spirituality, language, systemic oppression, displacement, and embodied expressions of distress have often remained peripheral or insufficiently conceptualized.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The paper has proposed a holistic formulation model that moves beyond reductionist and westernized conceptualizations of psychological suffering.

    “Drawing together person-centered philosophy, contemporary trauma literature, cultural psychiatry, and embodied understandings of distress, we have proposed a holistic formulation model that moves beyond reductionist and westernized conceptualizations of psychological suffering.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Throughout the process, the formulation remains open to revision as new experiences, insights, and meanings emerge within the therapeutic relationship.

    “Throughout the process, the formulation remains open to revision as new experiences, insights, and meanings emerge within the therapeutic relationship.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Exploration of meaning and narrative helps clarify how the client understands their experiences, which in turn illuminates the factors maintaining distress and those supporting change.

    “Exploration of meaning and narrative helps clarify how the client understands their experiences, which in turn illuminates the factors maintaining distress and those supporting change.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The formulation remains provisional and open to reflexive revisions as new meaning and experiences emerge.

    “The formulation remains provisional and open to reflexive revisions as new meaning and experiences emerge.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    The eight stages are not intended to be followed as a rigid linear sequence; they operate as an interconnected and reflexive process.

    “The eight stages are not intended to be followed as a rigid linear sequence.Rather, they operate as an interconnected and re- MultiPsych, 2026 5 of 17 flexive process.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The illustrative case material presented within this paper derives from previous qualitative research conducted by the first author as part of doctoral research exploring embodied trauma amongst refugee and asylum-seeking populations.

    “The illustrative case material presented within this paper derives from previous qualitative research conducted by the first author as part of doctoral research exploring embodied trauma amongst refugee and asylum-seeking populations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The participant's interview narratives provide a valid basis for formulating his distress.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The formulation provides a holistic map of distress, resilience, and strengths that support recovery and can guide therapeutic engagement while remaining responsive to the client's evolving experiences.

    “The formulation therefore provides a holistic map of distress, resilience, and strengths that support recovery which can guide therapeutic engagement while remaining responsive to the client's evolving experiences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The proposed formulation domains are sufficient to capture the complexity of displaced individuals' distress.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

    Interpretationnone given

    The model can be used collaboratively during assessment, ongoing therapy, multidisciplinary discussions, supervision and care planning.

    “In practice, the model can be used collaboratively during assessment, ongoing therapy, multidisciplinary discussions, supervision and care planning (see Appendix B for an example formulation worksheet that could be used in practice).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationnone given

    Experiences of displacement, trauma, and cultural identity are highly heterogeneous, and no single formulation framework can fully encompass the complexity of all refugee and asylum-seeking populations.

    “Experiences of displacement, trauma, and cultural identity are highly heterogeneous, and no single formulation framework can fully encompass the complexity of all refugee and asylum-seeking populations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
54 of 54

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No comprehensive model has yet been proposed considering the holistic aspects of an individual.

    “However, no comprehensive model has yet been proposed considering these holistic aspects of an individual, despite its urgent requirement in order to provide specific, targeted, relevant, and expedient access to appropriate therapeutic care services in the United Kingdom.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals.

    “We, as researchers and therapeutic practitioners, believe that the person-centered approach is best positioned to support the individualized model required for displaced individuals, and have culturally re-envisioned Simms' (2011) model of person-centered formulation specifically for this client group.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The single case of Ade is sufficient to illustrate the proposed model's domains and dynamics.

    “The case of Ade illustrates how these domains interact dynamically rather than operating independently.”
    “Using the case formulation of “Ade,” this paper has demonstrated how distress amongst displaced individuals may be more accurately understood as relational, embodied, existential, cultural, and socio-political in nature, rather than solely as intrapsychic dysfunction or symptomatology.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The proposed formulation domains are sufficient to capture the complexity of displaced individuals' distress.

    “The formulation therefore provides a holistic map of distress, resilience, and strengths that support recovery which can guide therapeutic engagement while remaining responsive to the client's evolving experiences.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The participant's interview narratives provide a valid basis for formulating his distress.

    “The illustrative case material presented within this paper derives from previous qualitative research conducted by the first author as part of doctoral research exploring embodied trauma amongst refugee and asylum-seeking populations.”
5 of 5

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 28

  1. Berghofer G., 1996, Client‐Centred and Experiential Psychotherapy: A Paradigm in Motion, 481
  2. Charura D., 2021, Black Identities and White Therapies: Race, Respect and Diversity
  3. Charura D., 2024, Trauma Demystified: A Guide for Students and Practitioners
  4. Charura D., 2015, The Therapeutic Relationship Handbook
  5. Cooper M., 2008, Essential Research Findings in Counselling and Psychotherapy: The Facts Are Friendly
  6. Dudley R., 2006, Formulation in Psychology and Psychotherapy: Making Sense of People’s Problems, 17
  7. Grisaru N., 2016, Functional Somatic Syndromes Among Ethiopian Immigrants in Israel, Harefuah, 155, 741
  8. Hipolito J., 2019, Self Organisation and Complexity: Evolution and Development of Rogerian Thinking Organised by Odete Nunes, Universidade Autonoma De Lisboa
  9. Joseph S., 2015, A person‐centred Perspective on Psychological Theory and Practice
  10. Kleinman A., 1988, Rethinking Psychiatry: From Cultural Category to Personal Experience
  11. Lane D., 2026, The Handbook of Counselling Psychology and Psychotherapy: A Training Companion, 99
  12. Maslow A. H., 2013, A Theory of Human Motivation
  13. Mearns D., 2013, Person‐Centred Counselling in Action
  14. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence [NICE], 2026, Psychosis and Schizophrenia
  15. O’Brien C. V., 2026, The Handbook of Counselling Psychology and Psychotherapy: A Training Companion
  16. Orlinsky D. E., 2004, Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behaviour Change, 307
  17. Paul S., 1996, A Relational Model of Counselling, Counselling Journal of the British Association of Counselling, 7, 229
  18. Rogers C. R., 1951, Client‐Centred Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implication and Theory
  19. Rogers C. R., 1959, Psychology: A Study of a Science, Formulations of the Person, and Social Context, 184
  20. Rogers C. R., 1961, On Becoming a Person
  21. Rogers C. R., 1963, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 1
  22. Rogers C. R., 1970, On Encounter Groups
  23. Rogers C. R., 1980, A Way of Being
  24. Schmid P. F., 2007, The Handbook of Person‐Centred Psychotherapy and Counselling, 213
  25. Schmid P. F., 2007, The Handbook of Person‐Centred Psychotherapy and Counselling, 38
  26. Tribe R., 2008, Working With Interpreters in Health Settings: Guidelines for Psychologists
  27. Uphoff A., 2016, The person‐centred Counselling and Psychotherapy Handbook: Origins, Developments and Current Applications, 313
  28. Watters E., 2010, Crazy Like Us: The Globalization of the American Psyche

Cited by

Still being checked.

Related

Metadata

Authors
O'Brien, C., & Charura, D.
Affiliations
  • John Wiley & Sons London UK
  • York St John University (GB)
ORCID
Venue
MultiPsych
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2026-07-13
Volume
1
Issue
3
ISSN
3069-9711 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1002/mps2.70012
OpenAlex
W7168145029
Cited by
0
References
30
FWCI
0.00
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • MultiPsych (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Research at York St John (York St John University) (acceptedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Counseling Practices and Supervision
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
Keywords
trauma-informed practice, psychotraumatology, refugees, asylum seekers, displacement, trauma narratives, relational distress, language access

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-11-08, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).

A second model labelled each claim on 2026-11-08 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).

Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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